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PORTFOLIO COMPOSITION: A STUDENT'S GUIDE by Linda Badley, Ayne Cantrell, and Maria Clayton Department of English [ Part One--Argumentation and Research ] [ Part Three--Sample Student Portfolios ] [
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Document ] PART ONE—PORTFOLIO: ARGUMENTATION AND RESEARCH
 Argumentative Writing
Research,
Incorporating, and Documenting Sources
Introduction to English 1020 Portfolio Composition Welcome to English 1020 Portfolio Composition: Research and Argumentative Writing. This course is designed to help prepare you for sophomore and upper level courses and for professional life. In English 1010, you learned to compose short essays for a variety of audiences and purposes. In English 1020, you will learn to read and think critically, to research and evaluate a variety of sources, to write logically and persuasively, to integrate what you have thought and learned into your writing, and to cite and document your sources correctly. The fact that you are in a Portfolio Composition section of English 1020 is especially important. In other first-year writing courses, the student receives a grade on each individual assignment with little or no opportunity to revise the writing. In English 1020 Portfolio Composition, your teacher will ask you to revise your writing, which will not be graded until near the end of the semester--after you have had ample opportunity to collect the best of your revised work in a WRITER’S PORTFOLIO for evaluation. The Portfolio System aims to help you become mature writers capable of attaining both professional and personal purposes through writing. It encourages you to go beyond merely writing for your teacher by requiring you to address and communicate to a variety of real, flesh-and-blood audiences. The English Department is using this system because it offers a number of advantages to students:
How Does This System Work? In this system, you will develop a portfolio of your writing over the semester. All students will write five major assignments in addition to homework and in-class assignments. Your teacher will provide you with a schedule of deadlines for completing this work. For the five major writing assignments, students will complete one of two options as determined by the instructor: --students write five researched essays of different genres. Essay topics vary. Option Two--students write four researched essays of different genres and one annotated bibliography. The bibliography will annotate sources within a single topic area or field, and two of the essays will select their subjects from that area or field. For a description of the essay assignments see Five Portfolio Writing Assignments. At mid-semester you will submit a practice portfolio of revised writing. For the Mid-term Portfolio, students who complete Option One of the Essay Assignments will revise either Essay 1 or 2 and write an introduction to the portfolio; students who complete Option Two will revise Essay 1 and write an introduction to the portfolio. Your teacher will evaluate the portfolio and assign an informational letter grade. Whereas the mid-term grade report will let you know your pass/fail status in the course, the mid-term grade will not be binding; that is, it will not be figured into your final course grade. If your teacher informs you that your Mid-term Portfolio did not pass, you must have a conference with your teacher immediately. In this meeting, you and your teacher will devise a plan for improving your writing with the goal of passing the Final Portfolio. At semester’s end, you will prepare your Final Portfolio, which will consist of a total of three revised essays. You will make sure that you select only work that you have carefully revised and edited using the feedback provided by your teacher and peers. Your teacher will evaluate your portfolio by applying the Standards for Judging Student Portfolios, English 1020. To earn a grade of C or better, your writing must meet all six of the following criteria for effective writing:
The Final Portfolio will count at least 70% of your course grade. What Are Your Responsibilities as a Student in Portfolio Composition? Your teacher will coach you throughout the semester on how to prepare your Portfolio for evaluation. Your teacher will also request you to evaluate your own writing, at least twice during the semester--once before the submission of the Mid-term Portfolio and again before the submission of the Final Portfolio. You will follow these guidelines to ensure success in the course:
Five Portfolio Writing Assignments SKILLS/ABILITIES: The successful completion of each of the following five essay assignments requires that the writer
ESSAY 1A: SUMMARY AND RESPONSE (750-900 words) ,
Writing Well, 6th. edition: ESSAY 1B: EVALUATION OF AN ARGUMENT (750-900 words) ESSAY 2: SPECULATION ABOUT CAUSES AND EFFECTS (750-900 words) ESSAY 3: PROPOSAL TO SOLVE A PROBLEM (750-900 words) ESSAY 4: POSITION PAPER (750-900 words) ESSAY 5: LITERARY CRITICAL ANALYSIS (750-900 words)
Basic Requirements for Portfolio Assignments General Requirements:
Format Matters:
Typed or Word Processed Papers:
Use of Secondary Sources (see "Researching, Incorporating, and Documenting Sources" in this guide for additional requirements):
10 Steps to Completing Essay Assignments--Inventing, Drafting, and Revising
Standards for Judging Student Portfolios, English 1020 E FFECTIVE WRITING
Grades on portfolios range from A, B, C, and F. Portfolios are evaluated according to the criteria defined below: The grade of C means that the essays in the portfolio constitute competent writing at the first-year college level. The essays are fairly well organized and manage to convey their various purposes to the reader. While the portfolio lacks serious errors in documentation and the use of Standard English, the portfolio does not exhibit the vigor of expression and thought that would entitle it to an above-average grade. C is the average grade in MTSU’s first-year writing program. The grade of B means that the essays in the portfolio clearly constitute above average writing at the first-year college level. The essays are logically organized, ideas are insightfully and clearly developed, and source materials are integrated well with the writer’s arguments. While the essays exhibit the positive qualities of good writing listed above, the B portfolio does not sustain the originality of thought and style that characterizes the A portfolio. The grade of A means that the essays in the portfolio constitute exceptional writing at the first-year college level. The A portfolio contains all the positive qualities of good writing that are listed above, and in addition the essays show originality of statement and observation, and ideas are clear, logical, and even thought-provoking. The grade of F means that the essays in the portfolio do not achieve the average proficiency in expression and thought expected from first-year college writers. The essays may lack clearly identified purposes and audiences, fail to organize and develop adequately, fail to incorporate and document sources clearly, and/or contain serious errors in the use of Standard English. An unsatisfactory effort in any one of the six qualities of effective writing listed above results in a portfolio grade of F.
Writing that is persuasive influences readers by strengthening their beliefs or changing their opinions, and sometimes as a result of persuasive writing, readers act upon their newfound convictions. For example, after reading an article on the mistreatment of animals, a teenager comes to believe that animals are abused in laboratory experiments; she wants to take an active part in preventing such abuse, so she applies for membership in PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals), an activist organization for animal rights. Writing that attempts to persuade is the most common type of writing, yet writing to persuade can be the most difficult to achieve. Why? Just consider this hypothetical situation: Suppose you are convinced that alcoholic beverages should be allowed on our campus--beer, for example, in the grill. To act upon this belief, you decide to write a letter to the college president to ask that he join with you and a select group of students and faculty to work toward the common goal of allowing beer to be sold in the campus grill and to allow students to keep alcoholic beverages in their rooms, if they so desire. What factors should influence what you say and how you say it in the letter? Obviously, your having a strong belief in the cause will not be enough to win the president’s consent. You will need to select the strongest argument and the best evidence you can muster because the issue of alcoholic beverages on campuses of public institutions in Tennessee is an extremely controversial issue. After all, we live in the Bible Belt where church-affiliated groups consistently oppose the sale of liquor. Even if the president personally believes that students should have the privilege of drinking beer on campus, he may reject your appeal because of "hidden" factors, such as hostile public opinion and community pressure. In other words, you must know the possible objections in advance and address these in the letter. This is only one of many problems that you must overcome in writing such a letter. What are some others? Writing to persuade is a complex task, demanding an understanding of human behavior and motivation, knowledge of argumentation and evidence, and skill in audience analysis and adaptation. This semester’s work will be devoted to learning the process of persuasion. All the assignments you will write will be efforts to persuade your readers that your ideas are sound and that your views are worthy of their acceptance. Most likely, the kind of writing you will do in Portfolio Composition 1020 will differ from the kind of writing you have done before. In high school and in many first semester college composition courses, students write expository essays for the most part, i.e. writing that seeks to inform the reader. The primary purpose of expository writing is to get the reader to understand the material you present. But when you write to persuade, you will want your readers both to understand and to accept your arguments. The Persuasive Purposes and Audience Analysis/Adaptation How do you want your readers to respond to the subject? What do you want them to do as a result of reading your essay? These questions are directed at describing purpose in writing. "I want my readers to believe that we need more restrictive gun control laws"; "I want my readers to donate money to the Red Cross"; "I want my readers to accept the idea that plagiarism is like stealing"--these are purpose statements. In each of these instances, the writer seeks to influence the readers in a particular way. All are statements of persuasive purposes.
You will note that these statements of the general aims of persuasion are reader-centered. This means that the writer’s purpose is determined by the reader’s attitude toward the subject. Consequently, the first step in writing persuasively is audience analysis (Who are the readers? Where do they stand on the issue? Why do they believe as they do?) The next step in persuasive writing is audience adaptation. Here the writer uses the knowledge about the readers’ attitudes and beliefs to shape the content of the essay by adopting the most appropriate language and material to achieve the purpose inherent in the message. Three Proofs: Ethical, Emotional, and Logical The art of persuasion has a long and distinguished history. Although modern studies in psychology have taught us much about human behavior and contributed to our understanding of persuasion theory, still we owe much of our knowledge about persuasion to the ancient Greek philosopher/teacher Aristotle (384-322 BC). In his Rhetoric Aristotle defines rhetoric (the art of spoken or written discourse) as finding all "the available means of persuasion" (Ch. II). He divides the means of persuasion into three general categories of proof: ethos, pathos, and logos. Translated these mean ethical proof (persuasion by the writer’s character), emotional proof (persuasion by satisfying the audience’s emotional needs), and logical proof (persuasion by appealing to the audience’s ability to reason). Aristotle’s theory of the three types of persuasive proof rests on the fact that we are both thinking and feeling beings. We are rational and emotional. We reach conclusions about our world because we can solve problems logically, and we react to our world in particular ways because we have basic needs that must be met. Subsequently, we persuade others by appeals to their reason and emotions and by the strength of our personality and character. Ethical Proof--When writers present themselves as persons of good sense, integrity, and good will, they are attempting to use ethical proof to win the readers’ approval--to make them more receptive to persuasion. Simply put, we are likely to accept the opinions of others if we believe they are to be trusted, if we believe they are fair-minded, and if we believe they know what they are talking about. To illustrate, a foreign student enrolled in English 1020 complained to the departmental chairman about his composition teacher. "I want a real teacher," he said. "I want a man." This student was unhappy about having a female teacher (one, by the way, who held a Ph.D. and other outstanding teaching credentials) because in his culture women do not hold positions of authority; only men are teachers, religious leaders, and politicians. Therefore, the female composition instructor did not possess ethical proof for this foreign student. He demanded a "real" teacher--a man whom he could trust to teach the subject well. In writing, you can provide potential ethical proof both directly and indirectly. The direct means is by acknowledging your expertise on the subject. If you have firsthand experience, let the reader know. Recently, a first-year composition student wrote an essay that intended to persuade his readers that equal funding for female and male college athletes is desirable because women, as well as men, benefit from participating in college sports. He presented a very good argument, but his peer readers were most impressed by the student’s firsthand knowledge of the subject. The writer had coached girls’ softball and women’s track, so he knew from personal experience the value of sports activities for women. You, too, may have experiences and firsthand knowledge that will improve your credibility with the readers. If so, make the readers aware of your special expertise. Work experience, courses of study, activities, hobbies, skills of family and friends--all may qualify you to write on the topic and provide potential ethical proof directly. The indirect means of ethical proof includes factors involving your competency as a writer and thinker. Generally, readers are less likely to accept the ideas of those who do not write well. Errors in grammar and mechanics present the writer in a negative way, just as sloppy attire presents the applicant in a bad way during the job interview. The fact is that people do judge us by the way we write, and if we write incorrectly, we hold little or no ethical proof for them. Also if we reveal ourselves to be inconsistent and illogical, we do not impress our readers as writers they can trust. One wrong bit of information or one faulty argument can spoil the whole argument, even if the rest of the case you present is logical, correct, and consistent. Furthermore, readers expect you to be fair and thorough. If you are not, you will hold no credibility for them, and they will not accept your ideas. Emotional Proof--When writers attempt to persuade by promising to fulfill the readers’ needs, they are providing emotional proof. You are very familiar with this type of proof because you are bombarded with such appeals daily through advertisements and commercials. A few years ago, soft drink companies conducted television advertising campaigns that appealed to different human needs. "Join the Pepsi Generation" implied that if consumers drank Pepsi, they would belong to the popular crowd. The need to belong--to be accepted by others--is a basic need that humans all have. Dr. Pepper ads, on the other had, promised potential buyers that they would be unique if they drank Dr. Pepper. "Be a pepper" meant be one-of-a-kind; stand out in a crowd; don’t be like everyone else; dare to be different. This, too, is an appeal to a basic need we all have--the need to be different, our own person. Today, when the Gap Company advertises khaki trousers on television to the beat of Brian Setzer’s "Jump, Jive An’ Wail" and shows young, attractive men and women swing dancing, not only are advertisers attempting to sell a product by capitalizing on a new music fad, but also they hope to touch in you a need to belong to the "in" crowd; simply put, you are not "with it" unless you wear the Gap’s khaki pants. Insurance companies sell security to families; toothpaste manufacturers sell sexual attractiveness to young adults; and shoe clerks sell pretty feet to women! Can you think of others? Motivational researchers (people who study human behavior) often advise companies about how to best present their products to sway the public to buy them. They also advise politicians as to how to best sell themselves to win votes. Politicians in turn make use of emotional appeals in their speeches and commercials. The politician who tells us that college students are the future of our nation, that the poor--as well as the wealthy--must have college educations, and that our country is only as strong as our educated leaders appeals to our sense of fair play and to our national pride, as well as to our pride in being educated individuals. By the mid-20th century, persuasion of this type was a big business in the United States. In The Hidden Persuaders (1957), a study of the techniques and methods of persuasion, author Vance Packard notes, "The use of mass psychoanalysis to guide campaigns of persuasion has become the basis of a multimillion-dollar industry. Professional persuaders have seized upon it in their groping for more effective ways to sell us their wares--whether products, ideas, attitudes, candidates, goals, or states of mind" (1). These persuaders, according to Packard, are looking for
That the emotions play a significant role in persuasion has been recognized since Aristotle’s day. Three hundred years before the birth of Christ, Aristotle defined emotions as "those states which are attended by pain and pleasure, and which, as they change, make a difference in our judgments of the same thing" (92). Two hundred years later, with reference to speakers, the great Roman orator Cicero in De Oratore acknowledged the positive value of emotional proof: "Men make a decision oftener through feeling than through fact or law. [ . . .] Orators must have a scent for an audience, for what people are feeling, thinking, waiting for, wishing" (qtd. in Baldwin 52). Both Aristotle and Cicero clearly understood that a primary means of persuasion is to relate one’s proposition to the needs and values of the audience. Modern studies of human behavior have greatly increased our knowledge of what motivates people to do as they do. In Motivation and Personality (1970), psychologist A. H. Maslow speaks of a hierarchy of needs--needs that must be met for human beings to be happy and well adjusted. Common to all people are basic animal needs, those that must be provided for mere survival, such as the need for food and shelter, but we also possess needs that are particularly human, such as desires for approval and achievement. Most likely, you are enrolled in college, for instance, to fulfill the human need for self-esteem. Maslow recognizes that the animal needs must be met first before the human and "higher" needs; therefore, he describes such needs as hierarchical. In this respect; it is helpful to think of a ladder with the animal needs for basic survival represented by the lowest rungs of the ladder and the human needs for self-actualization at the highest rungs (figure 1). The lowest level of unsatisfied needs motivates behavior; once this level of needs is satisfied, a person tries to satisfy the needs at the next level. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS Self-Actualization
Needs The list of needs in figure 1 is by no means exhaustive, yet these will give you an idea of the kind of needs that are often referred to as "vital appeals" or "drives." A writer who seeks to influence readers by implying directly or indirectly that these needs will be satisfied if they accept the writer’s proposition is attempting to persuade by using emotional proof. Of course, what moves one group of readers emotionally may not move another. Although we can generalize about human motivation, individuals do differ. That is the reason that audience analysis is the key factor in emotional proof. What if you needed to write home for an advance on your weekly college allowance or you needed to ask a relative for money to pay an unexpected bill? Would you make the same appeal to both your father and mother, the same appeal to different relatives? Or do you understand that people are different and that motive appeals which work for one may not work for another? A common mistake that novice writers often make is to make appeals on religious grounds. These writers assume that all readers believe as they do and, thereby, are motivated when issues--such as censorship, abortion, or capital punishment--are connected to religious beliefs. When the readers do not have strong religious beliefs or hold none at all, obviously such appeals do not provide emotional proof. Writers also use connotative language favorable to their positions when they seek to persuade using emotional proof. Connotative language includes the feelings and attitudes--positive or negative--associated with words. When we speak of law enforcers as "police officers," we are using words with positive connotations; "cops" has a less favorable connotation, "pigs" even less favorable. Words have denotative meanings as well as connotative meanings. The denotative meaning is the literal and explicit meaning. Denotatively, an "elderly spinster" and an "old maid" refer to an older woman who is unmarried, yet there is a definite difference in the connotation of these phrases--"old maid" is much more negative than "elderly spinster." An essay entitled "Kill ‘Em! Crush ‘Em! Eat ‘Em Raw!" further illustrates the use of connotative language. Author John McMurtry is a former professional football player who deplores the violence of the sport, which he believes is just one more example of our society’s love for violence. At one point he says that "body shattering is the very point of football, as killing and maiming are of war." Then in the following passage, he turns his attention to the spectators:
McMurtry asks Americans to think of football in war terms: "violent aggression," "people-smashing," "savage attackers," and "martial tendencies." The implication of his connotative language is that both player and spectator are barbaric. If you accept the associations that the language implies, you will agree with McMurtry’s major contention: Professional football is representative of what is wrong with the American way of life. Logical Proof--The third means of persuasion is the appeal to reason, which calls on the reader’s ability to draw conclusions based on facts and judgments. In other words, writers who use logical proof will provide evidence and arguments; they will rationally demonstrate that their positions are justified. Aristotle held that logical proof is the most important means of persuasion. He understood that although the use of ethical and emotional proof is often appropriate, persuasive attempts that lack the "truth" of logical proof are suspect. Be wary of persuaders who offer no argumentative proof in support of their positions; perhaps, they attempt to manipulate readers’ emotions because no logical basis for their appeals exists. The writing that you will do in Portfolio Composition 1020 recognizes the importance of substantiating your position through logic. You may use ethical and emotional appeals, but you will use logical appeals primarily; after all, English 1020 is a course in argumentative writing.
Two coeds were sitting in Old Main waiting for their first class of the new semester to begin when the following discussion occurred:
Most of us engage in conversations like this one without realizing that we are participating informally in argumentation. Usually we think that argumentation is the work of lawyers or debaters in formal situations, such as courts of law or the debate forum, and it is, but argumentation is also a frequent means of persuasion in our everyday lives. An analysis of Janice and Anne’s conversation reveals four basic characteristics of argument which apply to both formal and informal argumentative contexts. First, there is a point of controversy. Is Economics 316 an easy or difficult course to pass? In answer to this question, a potential for disagreement exists, and controversy likely follows. Without a subject of controversial nature, no argument would ensue. Second, an assertion is made. Anne says that Economics 316 is a "breeze," meaning that the women will pass easily. This is the idea that she wants Janice to accept, but Janice is doubtful. Doubt, or disbelief, gives rise to a potentially argumentative situation. Third, information is offered to support the assertion. When Janice asks Anne how she knows that Economics 316 is easy, Anne makes several points: John passed the course; Professor Alexander helps students pass the course; Professor Alexander does not fail anyone who attends regularly. Fourth, for the argument to constitute a unit of proof, the information offered as support must be relevant to the assertion in such a way that one may infer the validity of the assertion. For example, when Anne says that Economics 316 must be easy to pass because John passed it, she infers that the women will pass because they are as smart or smarter than he. Finally, Janice assumes when she learns that Professor Alexander passes all students that attend class regularly that she will be one of those students; otherwise, she would not have accepted Anne’s assertion so readily. In short, an argument is advanced when an assertion is made about a controversial subject and information is provided to support the assertion; it is substantiated when that information is accepted and shown to be relevant in such a way that the truth of the assertion may be inferred. This is the chain of reasoning in an argument that constitutes a unit of proof. In The Uses of Argument (1964), English philosopher Stephen Toulmin introduces a model for a unit of proof that the writer can use to construct and analyze arguments. A uniqueness of the Toulmin diagram for argument especially pertinent to the invention of written argument is its description of argument as dynamic movement. Toulmin defines argument as movement from accepted data (D) through warrant (W) to claim (C). These are the three indispensable components of an argument as diagrammed on the Toulmin model in figure 2:
Together these essential components may constitute a unit of proof and are defined according to their functions within the argument: (1) Claim is the conclusion to the argument; that is, it is the assertion made by the writer--the idea the writer wishes the reader to accept. Claims may either affirm or deny: There is (is not) life on Mars; People who falsify their federal income tax reports are (are not) criminals; Forced busing is (is not) the best solution to public school integration. Claim, then is the explicit appeal produced by the argument. As propositions asserted by the arguer for audience acceptance, claims fall generally into three basic types: propositions of fact, value, or policy. A claim of fact asserts or denies that something has happened, is happening, or will happen and usually can be confirmed or denied by objective data: It is (is not) raining. A claim of value makes a judgment about a person, place, thing, or idea: Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest is (is not) a good novel. A claim of policy advocates or rejects a course of action: Marijuana should (should not) be legalized. The claim must be a contention of controversy; otherwise, there would be no need for an argument. For the writer, the claim answers the question "What do I want my reader to believe?" It is either the final assertion in the argument or an intermediate statement that once accepted serves to support another claim. For example, the claim that "many high school football injuries are the result of worn or outdated uniforms" once accepted by the reader may become support for the major claim of the argument that "There should be annual inspections and state approval of high school football equipment." In a complex argument (actually a series of arguments), claims once accepted often function as data for another claim. (2) Data is the foundation of the argument, and for the writer, data answers the question "What have I got to go on?" It consists of evidence, materials of fact or opinion, that the writer offers in seeking acceptance of the claim. Data is crucial to argument since no unit of proof is possible without information that functions as evidence. When the weatherman asserts that it will rain tomorrow, he explains and offers as evidence the weather conditions that lead him to make his prediction. If the television viewers understand and accept that information as evidence, they will carry their umbrellas to work or to school the next day. Thus, evidence provides the ground for belief and often for action based on belief. (3) Warrant is that part of an argument that authorizes the mental "leap" in advancing from data to claim. For the writer, it answers the question "How did I get there?" and functions to carry the accepted data to the doubted claim, thereby certifying the claim as true or acceptable. Since reasoning is the drawing of inferences or conclusions from known or assumed facts, the warrant is an essential link in the chain of reasoning and the movement of argument. To illustrate, to link the data that "The cost of higher education is increasing, but state legislatures are allocating less money to public colleges each year" to the claim that "Soon most students will not be able to afford a college education," the arguer will need a warrant that "Less funding by state governments will mean higher and higher yearly increases in college tuitions." Whether the warrant is stated explicitly or merely implied, it is an essential link in the movement of argument. To illustrate these three components of an argument, we may refer to the original example of the coeds’ discussion about Economics 316 and diagram Anne’s argument on the Toulmin model (figure 3). Notice how the words--on account of, since, and therefore--cue the reader as to the relationship of components in the argument:
We saw in the example that Janice was easily persuaded by Anne’s logic. The skeptical observer, however, is less likely to accept Anne’s claim so readily. No doubt these and other questions come to mind: Can Anne’s claim be accepted absolutely without any qualifications or reservations? How does she know that the women are as smart or smarter than John? What if Professor Alexander changes his grading policy regarding regular attendance? Such questions suggest that although acceptance of data, warrant, and claim constitutes a unit of proof, these components alone often are insufficient to satisfy every audience. In these cases the writer must anticipate the reader’s questions or objections and adapt the argument accordingly. Again the Toulmin model is helpful. The complete model adds three other components: backing (B), rebuttal (R), and qualifier (Q). These allow the writer to qualify, restrict, and/or further support the main line of proof when acceptance of the main line of proof is doubtful. The relationship of these components to other components in the unit of proof is indicated by the cue words probably, unless, and because. The revised model is diagrammed in figure 4:
These three additional components are also defined according to function: (4) Backing consists of credentials that serve to certify the
assumption expressed in the warrant. This may be a single item or an entire
argument with its own data, warrant, and claim. One or more of these additional components often are necessary because in most argumentative contexts incontrovertible claims are rare. Experience teaches us that very little in life is certain, that exceptions violate most rules. To reason well and to argue persuasively, the writer must be aware of exceptional circumstances or objections that weaken the credibility of the argument and be willing to adapt the argument to the special demands made by the reader. Toulmin’s six component model may be illustrated with a revision of the argument concerning Economics 316 (figure 5):
Although the degree of force of Anne’s argument is lessened by these revisions (i.e., that the women will pass the course easily is no longer asserted absolutely, for the argument recognizes the conditions under which the claim may not hold true), the claim now qualified by "probably" is more realistic and, thereby, more likely to be accepted by critical readers. Also the revised argument is more comprehensive than the original because now it accounts for the need for further support that many audiences expect. Using the Model as a Reading Strategy The Toulmin model is a tool that you can use to analyze the arguments of others, whether it be for the purpose of making personal decisions or for understanding argumentative constructs and responding to them. Therefore, you will want to add the Toulmin model to your store of critical reading strategies. Diagramming the arguments in the essays that we read in English 1020 will help you "see" a writer’s argument and determine how the argument’s components function as a unit of proof. In other words, the diagrams will serve as a quick visual aid of the writer’s skeletal argument: What is included? What is missing? Using the Model as a Step in Prewriting Also you will find the Toulmin model valuable as you invent and criticize your own arguments in the early stages of composition. A word of caution is necessary, however. Remember that the model is not a substitute for creativity. The model does not give you ready-made arguments; it will not do your thinking for you. Neither is it a means of evaluating the quality of statements plugged in to the diagram; you must go beyond the model to test the reliability of evidence, the validity of the argument, and the effectiveness of language. In the prewriting stages of composition, the model serves as a skeletal preview of the essential components of the argument(s) that you will express in final essay form. It tells you WHAT information is needed and HOW that information functions in the total argument. Testing and revising your ideas about a controversial topic on the model before you write the essay will insure that you have taken in to account all the essentials in a unit of proof. Moreover, the model suggests the need for audience analysis and subsequent adaptation, a must if you are to argue persuasively.
All the writing that you will do in English 1020 will be persuasive in intent; that is, you will attempt to influence your readers’ beliefs and sometimes you may want to call your readers to action. To be a successful persuader, you will need to understand your audience and adapt both content and language of your message to them. Also to succeed, you will need to come off as a credible person (ethical proof), appropriately move the readers emotionally (emotional proof), and, most essential to the aims of our study of argumentative writing, appeal to the readers’ ability to reason by providing sound arguments to support your position (logical proof).
When information is provided and accepted to support an assertion and shown to be relevant in such a way that the truth of the assertion is inferred, a unit of proof has been advanced; an argument has been constructed, and the arguer attempts to persuade through logic. An argument moves from accepted data through warrant to claim. Claim is the explicit appeal produced by the argument and answers the question "What do you want the reader to believe?" Generally speaking, claims may be propositions of fact (that which asserts or denies the existence of something in the past, present, or future), value (that which affirms or denies a judgment about a person, place, thing, or idea), or policy (that which advocates or rejects a plan of action). Arguments have no substantive point of departure without data that function as evidence. While data answer the questions "What do you have to go on?", warrant answers the question "How do you get there?" and serves to carry the accepted data to the doubted claim in a unit of proof. Most often these three indispensable components of an argument are insufficient to be persuasive because incontrovertible claims are rare. In such cases the writer must amend the main proof line by adding statements that qualify, restrict, or give further support. Backing may be needed to certify the assumption expressed in the warrant, or if the claim will not stand undisputed, a rebuttal may be needed to explain the circumstances under which the claim will be invalidated. In the event the writer recognizes that the claim will not hold good or will hold good only in a restricted way, the claim must carry a qualifier such as "probably" or "most likely." Data, warrant, claim together with backing, rebuttal, and qualifier are the six components of the model for an argument designed by Stephen E. Toulmin. The Toulmin model is a valuable tool as you learn to analyze and construct arguments. You should test ideas for argumentative essays by diagramming arguments on the model as a step in prewriting.
1. The two most common types of arguments are induction and deduction. A thorough study of argumentation is incomplete without some attention to these two basic types. Complete the following: (a) Read Harbrace section 35d for an overview of inductive and deductive reasoning; (b) write exercise 2, page 507; and (c) identify the conclusions of these enthymemes as claims of fact, value, or policy. 2. The inductive argument moves from specific cases (data) to a generalization (claim). Complete the following: (a) Diagram the inductive arguments below on the Toulmin model; (b) supply all missing warrants and note when qualifiers and rebuttals should be considered; and (c) identify the claims of these arguments as propositions of fact, value, or policy.
3. Whereas inductive reasoning moves from the specific (data) to the general (claim), deductive reasoning moves from a generalization (warrant) to a specific case (claim). Complete the following: (a) Using the Toulmin model, diagram the enthymemes in Harbrace exercise 2 (507) for which you supplied missing premises (Hint: restructure the arguments as syllogisms, see Harbrace 506. In the syllogism the minor premise will be data, major premise will be the warrant, and the conclusion will be the claim of the deductive argument.); and (b) next consider the need for any missing components, such as backing, qualifier, and rebuttal, which would improve the acceptability of the argument. 4. Essayists build chains of arguments in their writing; therefore, when you analyze argumentative writing using the Toulmin model, expect to diagram several arguments within one essay--all intended to support the essayist’s major assertion (the thesis claim). Once accepted, the claims of supporting arguments become data for the writer’s thesis claim. An example of argumentative writing that uses chains of arguments is Amitai Etzioni’s essay entitled "Working at McDonald’s" (Reading Critically, Writing Well 253). Etzioni states his thesis claim in the opening paragraph: "McDonald’s is bad for your kids. I do not mean the flat patties and the white-flour buns; I refer to the jobs teenagers undertake, mass-producing these choice items" (253). Etzioni wants the reader to agree with him that after-school jobs at fast-food restaurants, such as McDonald’s, are bad for teens; this is his thesis claim. To support this assertion, Etzioni offers many reasons why working at fast-food restaurants is detrimental to teenagers; these reasons are claims, each demanding its own unit of proof. Complete the following: (a ) Read Etzioni’s essay carefully, looking for the reasons he advances in support of his thesis claim; (b) then, diagram these reasons as claims of separate arguments in support of Etzioni’s thesis claim (Of course, you should not attempt to plug in all of Etzioni’s statements on Toulmin models; just diagram the skeletal arguments, the essential reasons he offers in support of his thesis claim); (c) read the essay again, this time writing notes describing Etzioni’s use of emotional proof and ethical proof; (d) finally, write a paragraph (at least 100 words) in which you assess Etzioni’s effectiveness in achieving his purpose (Were you convinced that working at fast-food restaurants is bad for teens? Why or why not? Were his claims adequately supported? Was his argument augmented by fair and effective emotional proof, including connotative language, and by adequate direct and/or indirect ethical proof?) 5. Complete the following: (a) Write a paragraph (at least 100 words) in which you advance a single unit of proof that makes one claim; (b) diagram the argument on the Toulmin model as a step in prewriting; (c) identify your argument as inductive or deductive; and (d) identify your claim as one of fact, value, or policy. Suggested topics are fraternity hazing or binge drinking, television commercials, exploration of outer space, student government, censorship, organized sports for children, university general studies requirements, animal rights. Works Cited Aristotle. The Rhetoric of Aristotle. Ed. Lane Cooper. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1939. Baldwin, C. Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic. New York: Macmillan, 1924. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1970. McMurty, John. "Kill 'Em! Crush ‘Em! Eat ‘Em Raw!" Macleans Oct. 1971. Rpt. in The Norton Reader: An Anthology of Expository Prose. 9th ed. Eds. Linda H. Peterson, John C. Brereton, and Joan E. Hartman. New York: Norton, 1996. 348-53. Packard, Vance. Hidden Persuaders. New York: Pocket Books, 1957. Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. London: Cambridge UP, 1964.
RESEARCHING, INCORPORATING, AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES Very often, using your memory or personal observations is not sufficient to write convincingly about topics that interest you, topics you want to share with your audience. On these occasions, you will need to turn to outside sources to fill in the gaps of your knowledge and/or to add support and credibility to the points you present. Using secondary sources in your writing calls for you to develop or refine three new skills in addition to the ones you practiced in English 1010: researching, incorporating, and documenting secondary sources properly. For each of your Portfolio English 1020 essay assignments, your teacher will specify the number and types of sources you should consider including among books, periodicals, reference works, electronic sources, and the like (see Harbrace 546-67). Because information is available in many formats, you will want to let that variety be reflected in your Works Cited listing; in other words, avoid selecting all Internet sources, or all periodicals, or all books. Let your research demonstrate your familiarity with all types. Approach your research as a series of logically linked steps: Search preliminary databases You should begin by doing a preliminary database search on your topic to help you direct and even limit the focus of your interest. By accessing the MTSU Library's web site, <http://www.mtsu.edu/~library>, you can visit the "Research Gateway" which includes links to InfoTrac, Lexis-Nexis, as well as other sources related to your topic. From this search, you can begin compiling a working bibliography, or tentative listing of the sources you will consult in your research (see Harbrace 589-90). Most topics will yield a wealth of materials, so you will want to evaluate their usefulness by scanning them, reading abstracts, introductory material, reviews, and the like. In this way, you can determine an item’s applicability to your specific purpose (see Harbrace Section 38 "Evaluating Sources Online and in Print"). Making photocopies of material whenever possible allows you time to scan them more carefully, and later, if selected for inclusion, the copies make it possible for you to annotate and highlight passages to aid you in note taking (see Harbrace 585-89). Your teacher will require that you submit photocopies and/or notecards for all material incorporated in your paper. In addition to or instead of photocopies, your teacher may require that you use note cards on which you will (1) record pertinent publication in the correct Works Cited form for each source and (2) write the author’s/authors’ name(s), title, page number(s), a key word heading, and the pertinent material, clearly indicating whether it is a direct quotation or paraphrase. The key word heading will help you organize your cards and facilitate outlining, hence, organizing the points in your draft. Your teacher may require that you copy the material exactly from the text on one side of the card and offer a paraphrase on the reverse side. This method not only gives you practice in paraphrasing, but it offers you two versions of the same information as you make decisions about wording during your drafting process. Searching the Internet Using the Internet and other electronic resources is quickly becoming widespread among college students; while these sources are often easy to use and can be useful, they should be handled with caution because the Internet is a most democratic medium where incorrect, and sometimes harmful, information can look as professional and authoritative as credible sources. According to Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger in Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources (St. Martin’s, 2000), "there are few, if any, standards regarding what may be published on the Web" (93). As a rule, you will want to use electronic resources to complement, not replace, the information you can find in traditional print sources. Just as with more traditional sources, you will want to evaluate potential material for pertinence and reliability. Harnack and Kleppinger offer helpful guidelines in their to-the-point approach, which includes becoming familiar with the site’s rating, the author’s qualifications, the currency of the material—skills developed from familiarity and proficiency with the medium (104-13). (See also Harbrace 550-53 and Reading Critically, Writing Well 570-71.) One point is worth noting: when you are using electronic materials, you must make note of the date you access each item. This is a vital piece of information since material on the Internet changes almost on a daily basis. This information will be provided in the Works Cited entry. The basic format includes,
A common entry that many English 1020 students use to cite online material without a URL found from a library database. Note in the example below (from Gift’s Works Cited, p. 75) that the names of the database and the library are given, as well as the URL of the database:
For other information regarding Internet sources and the Modern Language Association (MLA), you can access their site at <http://www.mla.org/main_stl.htm#sources>. Another helpful resource is <http://www.abacon.com/compsite>, particularly the "Resources" segment. Incorporating and Documenting Secondary Sources Once you have gathered the secondary sources necessary to write your essay, you should have two goals concerning your sources: to make the information from your sources an integral part of your essay and to provide enough information about the source for your reader. Incorporating Sources The material from your sources can be incorporated in three ways: summary, paraphrase, and quotations. A summary is a statement in your own words that gives an overview in a few words of what the piece of writing is about. A three-page article can usually be summarized in three to four sentences or less and is written from the perspective of the summarizer (e.g., In "Television Insults Men, Too," Bernard Goldberg argues that television shows and commercials often present negative images of males). Like the summary, a paraphrase states the author’s ideas in your own words, but the paraphrase differs from the summary in that the paraphrases uses about the same number of words as the author. You must be careful not be lulled into thinking that merely changing a few words in a passage constitutes a valid paraphrase; if the wording in your paraphrase follows the source's wording too closely, you are guilty of plagiarism even when you cite the source (see Harbrace 597-600). A quotation uses the exact words of the author and is enclosed in quotations (see Harbrace 592-93). Summaries do not require parenthetical citations; paraphrases and quotations do (see Harbrace 593-97). One of the most challenging skills for students to master in using secondary sources is knowing when to use a quotation or paraphrase. As a rule, you should put the author’s ideas in your own words and use quotations sparingly. Your writing has a characteristic style which your audience becomes familiar with; too many quotations or "alien voices" act as static and create discontinuity. When using quoted material, you should place it within your paragraphs, not at the very beginning or as a replacement for a thesis or topic sentence; neither should quotations be used as the subject of your sentence. Additionally, you should follow a quotation with an explanation of its relevance to your paragraph, not with an echo or restatement of its points. Use a direct quotation
In order to prepare the reader for the tone or spirit of the quotation,
introduce it with an appropriate verb, what is called an attribution.
Additionally, an attribution or signal phrase provides an effective lead-in into
the author’s material, and it contributes his/her authority and credibility in
the subject area to your paper. Ordinarily, these verbs should be used in the
literary present tense. Here is a short list of examples (see Harbrace
591 for a more complete listing):
Documenting Sources You must document everything you borrow. Proper documentation is important because plagiarism—using another person’s words or ideas without acknowledging that they are not your own—is a very serious error that carries severe penalties. Accidental or unintentional plagiarism is still plagiarism. Your parenthetical documentation should provide your readers with references that clearly point to your Works Cited and the specific location of the material you are citing in its text, for instance page numbers (see Harbrace, 604+). To document your sources correctly,
Quick Reference Guide to Using Secondary Sources When you write using secondary sources, you will need know:
Most college writers know that copying another’s work word for word without giving him/her credit for it is considered plagiarism. But they often assume that this practice is frowned on only when long passages are involved—whole pages or paragraphs. Consequently, they feel free to copy phrases and sentences without using quotation marks and parenthetical documentation. Actually, any uncredited use of another’s information, ideas, or wording is plagiarism. Under the mistaken notion that they are paraphrasing, students often reproduce sources almost exactly, changing only a word here and there. Honest paraphrases, however, are ones in which students state the ideas of their sources in their own language, using original sentence patterns and words. The grade for a plagiarized paper is F. With this standard in mind, complete the following: (a) study the source passage and the examples below, noting which ones give proper credit and which are plagiarized; (b) assess the writer’s skill or lack of skill in using and crediting sources, assigning grades to each of the examples in the space provided; (c) then comment on the passage, explaining the grade you assigned. SOURCE: The following is from page 106 of Kenneth Shropshire’s Agents of Opportunity: Sports Agents and Corruption in Collegiate Sports (Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1990): Athletes must be able to receive more income as students. The logical entities to provide these increased funds are, first, the member institutions and, if that is not financially feasible, then the NCAA. At a minimum the additional amount the student athlete receives should be equal to the amount that brings the spending money available to the student athlete up to the university’s average student. This amount may be enough to prevent substantial cheating. EXAMPLES
Instructions: Using the sample Works Cited entries (Harbrace 613-32) and the information "Searching the Internet" of this Guide, put the following entries as they would appear on a Works Cited page.
The Essay Assignments--Option One
The
Essay Coversheet
The English Folder
THE ESSAY ASSIGNMENTS--OPTION ONE Essay 1A: Summary and Response
DESCRIPTION: Essay 1 requires that you write an essay that summarizes and
responds to another piece of writing. In your essay you will comment on the
writing by focusing on its content and indicating how your own experience and
knowledge lead you to disagree with the author. For a sample student essay that
summarizes and responds, see Portfolio Composition 56.
ADVICE
TOPIC: Read and annotate all the following essays from Axelrod and Cooper’s Reading Critically, Writing Well. Then choose one for the subject of your summary and response essay:
Why write the Summary and Response Essay? Summarizing and responding is emotionally satisfying and intellectually challenging. Often we read a newspaper editorial or magazine article that makes us angry, touches us deeply, or introduces us to a subject that we would like to tell others about. We want to understand the author’s message, pass it along to others (that’s the summary part), and give our own view in agreement or disagreement (that’s the response part). Summarizing and responding can be emotionally satisfying, especially if we care about our subject. The activity is intellectually challenging as well, for summarizing and responding requires reading carefully and thinking critically. To do the job well, we have to become active readers who make appropriate judgments about what we read. Writing in Your Other Courses and at Work. To summarize and respond--that is a common purpose of much academic writing. Writing the summary and response essay will introduce you to the kind of reading and writing skills you will need in English 1020. Furthermore, you can apply the skills you learn in completing this essay to academic assignments all across the disciplines--from summarizing chapters in a psychology textbook to responding to assigned readings in history. Also in the work world, you will often employ the skills of summary and response writing as you react to and create reports and proposals. Sample Student Essay--The essay entitled "Protection for Teenagers" is a student’s writing that summarizes and responds to a Newsweek article opposing the practice of "safe sex." Read the student essay to get a sense of the kind of writing you will do. Purpose and Audience--When you summarize and respond to another’s writing, you attempt to influence readers’ opinions about the position the author takes on a subject. Your primary aim is to convince readers that your view, whether in agreement or disagreement, is worthy of their acceptance. You want to be understood and taken seriously. Readers of this genre of writing have certain expectations and needs. Readers expect you to be ethical--to present the author’s position accurately and fairly and to build your own position on sound logic. Also, you cannot assume that your readers have read the piece you are responding to; therefore, you must give the readers sufficient detail for the author’s position to make sense. Summary of Basic Features
Invention and Research Exploring Your Subject--Once you select the writing that you will summarize and respond to, explore your subject by
Now that you thoroughly understand the author’s position on the subject, explore how you think about the subject by
Analyzing Your Readers--Take ten minutes to begin thinking about your prospective readers. You will need to choose and analyze your readers carefully so that you can provide the right kind of information for them. Contemplate what they know about the subject and how they are likely to view it. Consider the items on this audience checklist:
Planning and Drafting Your job in writing the summary and response essay is twofold: (1) to present the author’s ideas clearly and accurately so that someone who has not read the source will understand the author’s position and (2) to present a clearly defined, relevant response that disagrees with the author, at least in part, so that your reader will understand you and take you seriously. Thesis/Promise/Delivery. A strong thesis is essential in the summary and response essay. Readers need to understand what position you are taking in disagreement with the author. What is your response to the author’s position and why? In other words, in writing the summary and response paper, you make your readers this promise: "I will tell you what the author says about X and what I believe about X and why I believe it so that you will think I have treated my source fairly, and you will understand my position clearly." To deliver on your promise, ask yourself, "Have I provided adequate summary of the author’s position? Have I clearly outlined my position and my reasons for holding it?" Organization. As with all effective writing, the shape of the summary and response essay is determined by its thesis and patterns that follow from it. Obviously, the summary and response essay calls for both your summary of the selected reading and your response to it. Remember that you are summarizing the author’s ides in order to respond to them; be careful to strike an appropriate balance so that the author will be understood and your position clearly and fully addressed. Indicate how you disagree with the author and also tell why you do so. Characteristically, paragraphs in the summary and response essay serve these functions:
Revising In the revising stage of your work in progress, be sure to seek out the advice of your peers and instructor and pay close attention to satisfying the following questions:
Editing and Proofreading Paragraphs. Use Topic Sentences to cue your readers. Make sure that your topic sentence paragraphs relate clearly to your thesis and develop your topic well. In addition to using examples, details, and observations to develop your own ideas, you must use summary, paraphrases, and quotations to develop ideas from the selected reading. A summary is a statement in your own words that gives an overview in a few words of what the piece of writing is about (see Harbrace Handbook 596). An essay of two pages usually can be summarized in three sentences or less and is written from the perspective of the summarizer (e.g., "In ‘The Prism of Self-Image,’ Ellen Kaschak argues that . . . ."). Like the summary, a paraphrase states the author’s ideas in your own words, but the paraphrase differs from the summary in that in the paraphrase you must use about the same number of words as the author (see Harbrace Handbook 593). A quotation uses the exact words of the author and is enclosed in quotation marks (see Harbrace Handbook 592). Summaries do not require parenthetical citations; paraphrases and quotations do (Harbrace Handbook 592-96). Sentences and Words. Polish your sentences and diction by following the suggestions for Improving Your Prose Style for Portfolio Submissions. Editing. To spot errors in grammar and mechanics, typing errors, and omissions of words and phrases, read your essay aloud at least once prior to submission. Also follow your teacher’s requirements for the in-class editing of the essay. Sample Student Essay 1A--"Protection for Teenagers" ESSAY COVERSHEET
Protection for Teenagers How many times have we either read in the paper or heard the debates on television about whether or not it is a good idea to provide high school students with condoms? The argument goes something like this: one person will argue that students are going to have sex no matter what and that by providing condoms, we at least reduce the risk of disease and pregnancy, while another will argue that providing condoms tells students that it is all right to have sex, that there will be no consequences as long as they use condoms. An article in Newsweek by Dr. Robert Noble sides with the second argument. His title, "There Is No Safe Sex," is a warning (11). He gives evidence that condoms do not provide adequate protection, but his real point is that teenagers should not be having sex anyway. "Only married people should be having sex," he says (11). What concerns him most is that many people do not pay attention when they are told about the consequences of sex. Perhaps Dr. Noble should direct more of his energy to helping educate teenagers about sex because teenagers are going to have sex if they want to, no matter what anyone says. Mr. Noble is an infectious-diseases physician and an AIDS doctor. This profession allows him to see, firsthand, what young people have to suffer through because they did not listen to the warnings. In Noble’s opinion, "passing out condoms to teenagers is like issuing them squirt guns for a four- alarm blaze" (11). In other words, a sexually active teenager with a condom is playing Russian roulette. S/he might get killed or s/he might make it to round two. One of Noble’s strong points is that people who are fully aware of the consequences of unprotected sex do not use condoms consistently. The main reason is that they get very wrapped up in the heat of the moment, their brains stop functioning properly, and they seem to forget about the diseases they could contract and the babies they could conceive. Another reason people fail to use condoms is that they are afraid to talk about it with their partners. If they can’t be mature enough to talk about using condoms, Noble concludes, they aren’t mature enough to be having sex (12). Noble also alludes to the fact that people cannot be trusted and that condoms cannot be trusted to protect people from all of the infected liars that are in this world: "Lots of men and women with herpes and wart virus infections are having sex right now lying their heads off to their sexual partners – that is, to those who ask" (12). Many people do not talk to their partners about infectious diseases, and sometimes even those who do fail to get a straight answer. When one patient was asked if he told his partner that he was infected with HIV, he replied, "No, it would have broken the mood." Noble replied, "You bet it would have broken the mood. It’s not only the mood that gets broken" (12). Unfortunately, condoms do break and cannot always protect against pregnancy or the spread of diseases. However, condoms do come with a label that warns consumers that they are not 100 percent guaranteed. They must be used responsibly and with caution. As Dr. Noble argues, giving condoms to high school students will not change fact that people still get infectious diseases and women still get pregnant (12). However, teenagers have hormones, just as married couples do. For an AIDS doctor, Noble seems to be in denial about the lifestyles of most of his patients. The fact remains that teenagers are going to have sex if they want to, and there is not much that anyone can do to stop them. Noble would have had a more effective argument if he had spent more time working with teenagers and prevention programs to help educate them about safe sex. Just because teenagers are younger than the "typical" sexually active person does not mean that they should be denied the benefits that condoms offer. Safer sex is better than no protection at all. Works Cited Noble, Robert. "There Is No Safe Sex." Newsweek 1991. Rpt. in Reading Critically, Writing Well. Ed. Rise B. Axelrod and Charles R. Cooper. 4th ed. New York: St. Martin’s, 1996. 11-13. Questions for Critical Thinking:
Essay 1B: Evaluation of an Argument TOPIC & LENGTH: Essay 1 requires that you write an essay of 750-900 words that evaluates the logic of the argument in one of the following essays in Reading Critically, Writing Well .
For an example of this kind of writing, see the student’s essay entitled "A Logical Argument in O'Malley's 'More Testing, More Learning.'" PURPOSE: Your purpose is to persuade your readers that your evaluation is
valid and based on generally accepted standards for evaluating the logic of
arguments.
READING, WRITING, REWRITING REQUIREMENTS: This assignment requires that you complete the following steps: STEP ONE: Complete Invention Writing--Once you select the essay that you will evaluate, complete the following steps in which you will explore your subject and analyze your readers. You will need to write several pages to complete this assignment adequately. This assignment may be handwritten in pen or pencil or typed:
STEP TWO: Plan and Write Draft 1--Now that you have explored your subject, analyzed your readers, and arrived at a thesis through invention writing, you are ready to plan your essay and write the first draft. This assignment may be handwritten (pen or pencil) or typed.
STEP THREE: Write Coversheet and Draft 2
ESSAY COVERSHEET
A Logical Argument in O’Malley’s "More Testing, More Learning" For years college students have experienced extreme stress twice a semester: before midterms and finals. This anxiety is of no surprise to anyone who knows anything about college assessment. If everyone is aware of this ritual panic, then why has not anything been done to alleviate it? Patrick O’Malley proposes a solution to this problem in "More Testing, More Learning." He believes that "If professors gave additional brief exams at frequent intervals, students would learn more, study more regularly, worry less, and perform better on midterms, finals, and other papers and projects" (374). O’Malley provides an effective logical argument in "More Testing, More Learning" since all of his claims have relevant evidence that is reliable and because he refutes possible opposing arguments. These are two important criteria for an effective logical argument. O’Malley’s first claim is that students would learn more if given short exams regularly. He states, "The main reason professors should give frequent exams is that when they do, and when they provide feedback to students on how well they are doing, students learn more in the course and perform better on major exams, projects, and papers" (375). This statement is backed up by relevant evidence in the form of two reliable sources: One is a study conducted at Harvard University in 1990 in which students report they believe they learn more when they have "many opportunities to see how they are doing"; the second is from a review of a number of studies on student learning which finds that "students who take weekly quizzes achieve higher scores on final exams than students who take only a midterm exam" (375). Another claim O’Malley makes is that if professors gave more frequent exams, "they [would] encourage students to improve their study habits. Greater frequency in test taking means greater frequency in studying for tests" (375). He gives a relevant supporting example by stating, "Students need motivation to study regularly, and nothing works like an exam" (375). O’Malley’s audience, who are college professors, should understand and agree with this statement. Many professors have to administer brief exams over short reading assignments to make sure students read. Not only does O’Malley give relevant and reliable evidence to support his claims, but he also counterargues possible rebuttals. He acknowledges the fact that most professors do not give frequent exams because (1) they "take up too much of the limited class time available to cover the material in the course" and because (2) they "take too much time to read and grade" (376). In response to the first point, O’Malley admits that frequent tests could take up "one-fifth of each week’s class time. [. . . ] however, this time is well spent. Better learning and greater confidence about the course seem a good trade-off for another 30 minutes of lecture" (376). O’Malley also understands that a professor could spend hours reading and grading exams, and if they are not going to count as a large percent of the student’s final grade, then the professor may feel that frequent tests are a waste of time. His rebuttal is that "professors could give exams every other week or make them very short," or they could use the Scranton machine and teaching assistants to grade the exams more quickly (377). In another effective counterargument, O’Malley supports his claim that more tests will improve students’ study habits. He anticipates and refutes possible objections to this claim by stating, "It might be argued that students are adults who have to learn how to manage their own lives, but learning history or physics is more complicated than learning to drive a car or balance a checkbook" (375). The average person who knows how to drive and has taken a complicated class would enthusiastically agree. Patrick O’Malley’s essay "More Testing, More Learning" argues the point that more testing would cause more learning because students would learn more if given exams regularly and because frequent exams would improve student’s study habits. The essay is argued logically because all of O’Malley’s claims have relevant evidence that is reliable, and he gives objections to possible opposing arguments. Because his argument meets these two essential criteria for effective logic, O’Malley’s essay would be beneficial reading to anyone who finds interest in an extraordinary argument. Works Cited O’Malley, Patrick. "More Testing, More Learning." Reading Critically, Writing Well: A Reader and Guide. Ed. Rise B. Axelrod and Charles R. Cooper. 5th ed. Boston: St. Martin’s, 1999. 374-78. Questions for Critical Thinking:
Essay 2: Speculation about Causes and Effects
DESCRIPTION: Essay 2 requires that you choose a subject that provokes you
to think about causes or effects. Then you are to write an argument that sets
forth your cause or effect argument: that explores why something exists or has
happened, or what is likely to happen as a result, or about the impact it may
have on the future. For a thorough discussion of writing that speculates
about causes and effects, see chapter 7 in Reading Critically, Writing Well ,
313-15 and 369-80. A sample student essay follows this assignment;
you will want to read it to get a sense of the kind of writing you will do. Also
the Two Sample Student Portfolios include responses to the Essay 2
assignment:
"Crime in the NFL: Are Players Violent and Untouchable" and
"Negative Effects of Televised Violence on Children." YOU WILL BE EXPECTED TO
TOPICS: For topic suggestions, see the sections on "Considering Ideas for your Own Writing" following each of the sample essays in Reading Critically, Writing Well, chapter 7. The following list of trends, events, and phenomena may get you started. Remember that you will need to limit your topic. Trends Causes or effects of a social trend, issue, or problem, such as teen pregnancies, teen suicides, serial killers, child abuse,binge drinking on college campuses, steroid use, eating disorders, illiteracy among high school graduates, increase in school violence, guns in school, increase in violence against women, increase in violent crimes in Nashville and middle Tennessee, books banned or removed from school libraries, postfeminism, men’s movement, lesbian chic, vegetarianism among college students, and abstinence. Causes or effects of a trend in popular culture or the media, such as popularity of a toy, game, sport, television show, or movie; popularity of a star, singer, or celebrity; a popular trend such as body piercing or tattoos; the increase in reported UFO sightings and/or alien abduction experiences; the gothic subculture; the return of an interest in and belief in angels; tabloid television shows; and infotainment. Events Causes of an international, national, regional, local, or natural event
Phenomena Causes of a widespread phenomenon: a phobia, religious belief or
practice, or myth Sample Student Essay 2--"Boy Bands: Phenomenon or Marketing Trick" by Camillya Gift ESSAY COVERSHEET
Boy Bands: Phenomenon or Marketing Trick? Mix together cute boys, sugary lyrics, and cheesy choreography and what do you get? The popular music trend known as "boy bands." There are many trends in music that come and go, but this one keeps reappearing nearly every decade. The boy band phenomenon started with the Beatles in the sixties, followed by the Jackson Five in the seventies. It came back full blast in the eighties with New Edition and New Kids on the Block. Now, it has come back and is in full swing with many groups such as the Backstreet Boys and NSYNC. The effects of this frenzy are sold-out venues, record-breaking album sales, and plenty of screaming pre-teen girls. But why does this phenomenon happen every so many years? Smart advertisers who understand the teen girls’ market and the increasing amount of money left at a teenager’s disposal these days are the causes of the music trend known as "boy bands." It is no secret that girls are the power and money behind the boy band movement. As females reach the pre-teen ages of eleven and twelve, which are also the age of puberty, they become boy crazy and begin having their first crushes. This situation is common knowledge to everyone, including advertisers who promote boy bands. The advertisers observe these actions and decide to capitalize on them. What better way to grab the attention of young females than with four or five cute guys that sing their hearts out about love? Almost every girl at eleven or twelve likes to pretend that she is somebody’s everything. This fact is the advertisers’ first clue as to what to put on the music market to grab this age group’s attention. Another reason marketers want to grab this particular age group’s attention is that they have more money at their disposal to spend frivolously than others do. A poll done in 1997 showed that females between the ages of thirteen and fifteen had about $45 to spend a week, of which $41 was actually spent ("Teen" 1). This fact is why posters, calendars, tee shirts, etc., are put on the market. Revenue from these items makes millions of dollars a year. Also, teenagers are prolific magazine buyers. Barbara Patterson, a teen magazine publisher, states that teenagers "spend three million a month buying our magazines" (qtd. in Fry 37). Teens buy these magazines because they crave the pictures and information about their favorite group or group member. It may seem doubtful that this much money is spend on untouchable teen heartthrobs, but statistics show that of the $108 billion spent by teenagers in 1996, $24.3 billion was spent on entertainment alone ("Teen" 1). To further understand why these advertisers market toward teen girls, one has to first look at the reoccurring music trends compared across the different generations. Each generation goes through one basic music cycle. It is quite simple. As each generation of females reaches its preteens, teenybopper music becomes popular. As teens get older, they want to rebel, and that’s where rock and rap come into play. This cycle recycles itself over and over again. Advertisers only have to look at album sales and statistics to realize this phenomenon. Beatlemania caused a huge rise in album sales, as did New Kids on the Block in the eighties. The Jackson Five did the same in the African American market, as did New Edition in the eighties. The marketing executives went by the motto "If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it." In the nineties, they used the same tactic. Sure, the boy bands wear updated clothes and hairstyles, and their songs have a nineties’ edge, but the lyrics haven’t changed much. Love songs seldom do. For example, the Jackson Five sang, "All I want, all I need is one more chance. I want you back." In New Edition’s first hit song, they sang, "Do you really want me? Do your really need me? I need your love each and everyday." In the nineties, NSYNC topped the charts singing, "You’re the one I want. You’re the one I need. So tell me what to do now when I want you back." Why mess with success? Statistics suggest that this tactic still works. Billboard sales show that the Backstreet Boys broke the record for first week sales by selling approximately 1,130,000 copies of Millennium during the first week of release (Orr 276). NSYNC made approximately $267 million in US album sales and tour revenue in 2000, not including the millions from foreign countries (Zeidler). At the present, the boy band craze seems to be on the decline, although the decline is not as apparent as it will be in a couple of months. Music researcher Sue Zeidler states that "Due to a variety of factors, these acts appear to be hot sellers in stores but their music is not dominating the airwaves as they did just a few months ago." Even though, the boy band frenzy is starting to fade, the fact still remains that in about ten years, it will be back in full force. And smart advertisers will continue to take advantage of it. As long as young girls dance alone in their bedrooms, groups like the Backstreet Boys will rule the airwaves. When they fade, another group will take their place. As one author puts it, "Pop music trends come and go, but puberty never goes out of style"(Perry). Works Cited Fry, Andy. "Same Kids More Money." Marketing 29 June 1995: 37. InfoTrac. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 8 February 2001 <http://web2.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/session/>. Jackson Five. Goin’ Back to Indiana. Motion, 1971. New Edition. Candy Girl. MCA, 1984. NSYNC. NSYNC. Jive, 1997. Orr, Jay. "Performing Arts: Music." Encyclopedia Britannica. 2000 ed. Perry, Jonathan. "Love is Blond." The Boston Globe 23 September 2000. Lexis-Nexis. Middle Tennessee State U Lib, Murfreesboro. 12 February 2001 <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/>. "Teen Spending Keeps Climbing." Forecast January 1998:1. InfoTrac. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 8 February 2001 <http://web2.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/session/>. Zeidler, Sue. "Cracks Beginning to Show a Teen Pop Craze." 8 February 2001. 8 February 2001 <http://www.backstreet.net/news/data/010208-0853-01.html>. Questions for Critical Thinking:
Essay 3: Proposal to Solve a Problem
DESCRIPTION: Essay 3 requires that you define a problem, explore its
significance, and offer a solution. The problem should affect a group or
community you are a part of. In your research, you will be expected to explore
and use findings that show how others outside your community have experienced
and addressed the problem. For a thorough description of writing that
proposes to solve a problem, see chapter 8 in Reading Critically, Writing
Well pages 381-83, and 434-44. A sample student essay follows this
assignment; you will want to read it to get a sense of the kind of writing you
will do. Also the Two Sample Student Portfolios include responses
to the Essay 3 assignment:
"Get What You Pay For: A Tennessee State Income Tax" and
"Protecting the
Children: Preventing Child Abuse." Assuming that your readers are aware of the significance of the problem, your essay will emphasize the solution and detail a specific plan solving the problem. (For example, most people recognize that voter apathy among young adults is a growing problem in the United States, yet no one seems to be doing much about the problem. You propose a three-step plan to increase the number of young adult voters in your hometown. The description and justification of the plan takes up the majority of your essay.) Option 2: Assuming your readers have little awareness of the problem and that the recognition of the problem is the first step towards solving it, your essay will emphasize the problem, proving that it is a significant problem that needs to be addressed in a particular way. (For example, as an Asian American student at MTSU, you have become aware of the lack of an organization for Asian students and want to raise consciousness of this lack in other Asian students. While you will propose to solve the problem by creating an Asian student organization, much of your essay will be devoted to convincing your audience that its lack is a problem and motivating them to organize.) AUDIENCE: Select an individual or a group who is in a position to do
something about the problem and who could be persuaded to act on your proposal:
for instance, a committee, readers of a newspaper, your environmental science
class, or the MTSU community. Remember that you must show that the problem exists and is serious enough to
warrant your reader’s attention. You will need to anticipate your audience’s
preconceptions and knowledge of the problem and to consider objections and
alternative solutions the readers might think of.
TOPICS:. In selecting a subject, think about problems within an organization you belong to, at MTSU or in your local community. Good topics for this paper are subjects that you have personal experience of or know particulars about. The three to five required sources may include interviews, surveys you have conducted, pamphlets, television news programs, and background information from newspapers, periodicals, books, and online sources. If you are working on a solution to a local or campus problem—for instance, an increase in rape on campus—you should consider researching the statistics at other universities and how they have dealt with the problem. Topic Suggestions: To explore ideas for topics, review the sections on "Considering Ideas for Your Own Writing" in chapter 8 of Reading Critically, Writing Well. Also see the possibilities below:
Sample Student Essay 3--"Safety of Our Children" by Tabitha Anne Lambert ESSAY COVERSHEET
Safety for Our Children Remember standing up in the back seat of the family automobile as a kid? Bouncing around back there was great fun until the day mom stopped short, and you flew off the seat headfirst; from then on, you buckled up. The fun may have been spoiled, but your life may have been saved by child restraints. The American Medical Association ran a test which showed that child restraints result in "fewer injuries, and more uninjured children" (Tyroch 394). Child restraints can provide life-saving protection to children riding in motor vehicles, yet many parents neglect to restrain their children in car seats or seat belts. Every day in Wilson County, we see kids playing around in the back seat as their parents drive down the road. This problem needs immediate action because "Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of accidental death among children under the age of five" ("Child Safety" 65). If we in Wilson County initiate a plan to teach parents appropriate child passenger safety information and impose more stringent penalties on parents who fail to safely secure their children, we will reduce the occurrences of children dying in auto accidents because they were not properly strapped into their safety seats or did not wear seat belts. Education is the secret to preventing the death of children in automobile accidents. When a child is born, hospitals in our area should educate parents on the proper use of child restraints. If parents were taught the proper procedures, it would help to eliminate minor mistakes that lead to major disaster. In the hospital, parents should also be informed of the facts and statistics associated with the use of child safety seats. Ensuring that parents understand the severity of not restraining their children would make them more cautious about their safety. In 1981 the Automotive Safety for Children was established at the Indiana University of Medical Center to teach parents child passenger safety information (Talty 619). This program’s objective was to provide statewide education and resources regarding child passenger safety. The Indiana Medical Center reported that after this program was implemented, the number of injuries to children in automotive accidents was greatly reduced. Consequently, "Incorporating child passenger safety education and child safety seats into the hospital environment can positively impact the health and safety of young children and foster safe transportation practices by families" (Talty 619). The benefits of providing such programs to families in Wilson Country far outweigh the challenges of implementation the program. The cost will be minimal since the topic of proper child restraints can be added to existing parenting classes offered by local hospitals. Maintaining this educational program will not solve the problem alone. Some parents will still fail to take the advice of well-informed individuals. More motivation than saving their children’s lives is necessary to assure that they restrain their children. The 1998 issue of The Western Journal of Medicine confirms, "In the last two decades, with implementation of mandatory restraint-use laws, overall rates of death and injury have decreased. Yet, non-use remains the major risk factor for death and injury to children" (Agran, Winn, and Anderson 375). Since non-use remains the major risk factor, it ultimately means the laws are not severe enough. If they were, non-use of safety restraints would not remain the major risk factor for death and injuries to children. Although all fifty states require children to be restrained while riding in automobiles, as many as 600 children die in auto accidents each year "because they were not properly strapped into their safety sets or did not wear seat belts" (Smolowe 54). In Tennessee, according to Sergeant Barlow of the Mount Juliet Police Department, "Failing to restrain a child is merely a misdemeanor noted as a moving violation." A ticket written for violating a misdemeanor in Wilson County costs seventy-three dollars; however, the severity of policies varies from country to county (Barlow). If more stringent penalties were imposed in our county, the law would be more effective. The first violation of a child safety law in Wilson County should result in the parent paying to retake the child safety class. This penalty will cause people to lose money because they will miss work and will have to pay for the class. People pay attention when violations cost them money. If the violation reoccurs, outstanding fines of a hundred dollars or more and loss of the parent’s driver’s license should be substantial punishment. With these consequences in mind, it would not take many infractions for parents to start buckling up their children. The problem of children dying in auto accidents because they were not properly strapped into their safety seats or did not wear seat belts is not going unacknowledged. On February 13-19, 2000, National Child Passenger Safety Week encouraged parents to safely secure their children ("National Child" 91). This problem is clearly one that people are working to fix, and we citizens of Wilson County need to do our part. If we educate parents about the appropriate child passenger safety information and impose more stringent penalties when they fail to safely secure their children, we can reach our goal: saving the children. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, "Proper use of existing child restraints could prevent 500 deaths and 56,000 injuries each year" (Child Safety" 65). Child restraints help parents save their children’s lives. We must save our children because they cannot do it themselves. Works Cited Agran, Phyllis, Diane Winn, and Craig Anderson. "Motor Vehicle Occupant Protection for Children." The Western Journal of Medicine 169.6 (1998): 375. Barlow, Sergeant. Personal interview. 1 Mar. 2000. "Child Safety." Automotive Engineering 100.4 (1992): 65-66. "National Child Passenger Safety Week--February 13-19, 1000." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 49.4 (2000): 91. "Smolowe, Jim. "He Had Been Punished Enough." Time May 1991: 54. Talty, Judith, et al. "Implementing a Comprehensive Child Restraint Program in a pediatric Hospital: An Effective Model." Pediatric Nursing 26.6 (2000): 619. Tyroch, Alan H. "Pediatric Restraint Use in Motor Vehicle Collisions: Reduction of Deaths Without Contribution to Injury." The Journal of the American Medical Association 385.4 (2001): 394. Questions for Critical Thinking:
DESCRIPTION:
Essay 4 requires that you research an issue and write an
essay that takes a position on it. You should take your readers’ objections and
questions into account and represent opposing viewpoints fairly. For a
through description of writing that argues a position, see Reading
Critically, Writing Well, chapter 9, pages 445-47 and 507-16. A
sample student essay follows this assignment; you will want to read it to get a
sense of the kind of writing you will do. Also the Sample Student Portfolio 2
includes a response to the Essay 4 assignment:
"In the
Interest of the Children: The Case for Open Adoption." YOU WILL BE EXPECTED TO
GUIDELINES: See Reading Critically, chapter 9. This assignment
requires that you choose your subject carefully and base your position on solid
reasoning and evidence. Before deciding on the position you will take, you
should research the issue thoroughly and examine it critically. Evaluate the various positions that can be taken. You will
need to examine your own underlying assumptions as critically as those of your
opponents. After this period of critical reading and thinking, you should be
able to assert a position. But expect your ideas to change as you learn more
about the subject, and revise your thesis as you go. Political, Social, Religious, and Cultural Issues bilingual education, affirmative action, school violence , single parenthood, racist IQ tests, police brutality, neoNazi movements, gays in the military, paganism, capital punishment, alternative prison systems , the Internet and censorship, hate crime legislation Gender and Sexuality: gendered violence in film, university non-discrimination policies on sexual orientation , gender bias in the classroom, the advantages/disadvantages of single-sex schools, sexual harassment (in the military, university, etc.) Health Care and Contemporary Bioethical Issues: treatments of Attention Deficit Disorder; AIDS education; bioethics and organ transplantation; reproductive technologies (limit): artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, prenatal gender choice; surrogate motherhood; genetic testing; cloning; cryonics; euthanasia; assisted suicide; a type of cosmetic / reconstructive surgery ; animals in research, experimentation, animal rights; use of animal organs for human transplantation; the walking horse industry versus animal protection agencies (soring issue); midwives ; alternative medicine: chiropractic, acupuncture, imaging, etc. (limit) Technology, Science, and the Environment: , the future of the space program , acid rain and political relations between Canada and the US, greenhouse effect, biological weapons, ozone depletion, a recycling program Sample Student Essay 4--"Napster: A Threat to the Music Industry" by Ryan Illingworth ESSAY COVERSHEET
Napster: A Threat to the Music Industry Since May of 1999, a new technology has changed the way we purchase music forever. Napster, a file-sharing network that emerged onto the Internet, has allowed members to trade and download songs for free. Since Napster’s birth, the company has infringed upon copyright laws sending the recording industry into an uproar. Napster isn’t paying the artists or labels the royalties they are rightfully due since the music is given away for free. The network is easy to use and has become the Internet’s fastest growing website. Howard Cohen of the Montreal Gazette reports that Spin magazine named "’Your hard drive’ as its 2000 album of the year, suggesting that ‘The digital download proved so revolutionary it will have a longer legacy than any single piece of music released in 2000.’" One might ask, "What is the harm in a few downloads?" The problem is that we the college students who make up the main user of the mp3 trading company are downloading hundreds of songs what would have been profit for the industry, and this practice is wrong. We should realize that Napster is harmful to the music business not only because it steals much needed money from the recording industry, but also because it potentially hurts its consumers as well as the independent artists. Napster has stolen a large amount of money from the recording industry. Benny Evangelista of the San Francisco Chronicle, reports, "The world’s biggest record labels and music publishers are seeking the injunction against Napster, saying the free downloads by the program’s 64 million registered users are costing the music industry billions of dollars in lost CD sales revenue." People may assume that the music industry has money to throw away; however, the industry uses the profit from CD sales to pay thousands of artists their royalties, manufacture CDs, advertise, and put on very costly tours. Each of these elements is needed to expand the artist’s audience, increase the gross income, and make the industry work. The lost profit from album sales is not only used to pay royalties to existing music stars, but is also needed to help find the next hot boy band or gorgeous female singer. If the industry loses too much money, then it will no longer be able to get new artists out in the market. Not only does Napster steal money needed to produce rock starts, but it also hurts the independent artists who are not lucky enough to land a record deal. Many of these musicians use their own money to promote their music. Melissa Bancroft, a senior at a Pittsburgh high school, says that when you download an artist’s songs, "You’re taking money away from people who are trying to make it" ("Teens"). Let’s say that someone owns a restaurant, and a customer finds a way to sneak food outside to millions of people so they could eat the food for free. Eventually the restaurant would go out of business due to everyone taking the food without compensating for the hard work and ingredients. In the same way, Napster is not compensating for the loss of money that it steals from artists. Some artists argue that it is not about the money but about music reaching a larger audience. Evangelista says, "What you are getting [from putting music on Napster] is a whole bunch of people sampling your music that would have never given it a second chance otherwise." While this effect is true for some artists, most likely they are not the ones that are trying to make a living from their music career. It is difficult to make it in the industry without people stealing music that rightfully belongs to the artist. We college students justify using Napster by claiming we’re too poor to purchase CDs, yet the independent artists we are stealing from barely have enough money to put food on the table. As a result of Napster, the loss of money needed to produce musical talent will also hurt the consumers. America is blessed to have different genres of music that are easily accessible to the buyers that keep the business alive. If the industry cannot afford to produce new artists, then the loss will deprive everyone of artistic expressions that musicians create. Music touches people in different ways that no other art form can. Songs can be used to relax one’s nerves, enhance the atmosphere of a party, or relate with someone’s mood. The artists need an audience, and the audience needs new cultural art forms to feed their emotions. Napster hurts the recording industry, independent artists, and music consumers. Even though people will always find a way to steal music, we must respect the hard work and money that goes into the music industry. After all, performers put their lives into their music. It is not right to steal someone’s musical ideas for the simple fact that it is easily accessible on the computer screen. Recently, Napster was forced to charge a monthly fee of $4.95. While the new fee might let Napster’s music trading become legal, it cannot make up for the lost CD sales and the loss of great artists who cannot survive in a tough market. Works Cited Cohen, Howard. "The Napster Revolution: Digital Downloading of Music Had a Hugh Impact on the Recording Industry." The Gazette [Montreal] 30 Dec. 2000: C1. 16 Mar. 2001 <http://persist_cat%25a3&wchp=dGLSIV-ISIzV&_md5+8853a5ae81bf4eeeb03ec728fb2cbb>. Evangelista, Benny. "Independent Musicians Divided Over Napster." The San Francisco Chronicle 2 Mar. 2001: B1. 15 Mar. 2001 <http://5a4%25a3torng%25a4%25a3&wchp=GLSzV-/ ISIA&_md5=2ae5b5ca1fbe0ef77f7cebeb14974>. "Teens Like the Idea of File Sharing on the Internet, But Some Say It’s Wrong to Take Away an Artist’s Livelihood." The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 25 March 2001: Metro W-3. 30 April 2001 <htt://rng%25a4%25a3persist_form%25a41%25apersist_car%25a4%25a3&wchp+dGLStS- /ISIAL&_md5+3f21f35f51723b7a1638a242bdc8408a>. Questions for Critical Thinking:
Essay 5: Literary Critical Analysis
DESCRIPTION: Essay 5 presents the writer’s interpretation of the meaning
in a piece of literature. Although the writer stakes out his/her own
interpretation, one that other readers may not agree with, the writer wants to
be understood, taken seriously, and have the interpretation stimulate the
readers’ thinking and enhance their appreciation of the piece.
TOPICS: Your teacher may assign one of the novels identified in Essay 5 Sample Assignments or a novel not listed. Please check the novel choice with your instructor before you begin this assignment.
Why Write the Literary Critical Analysis Essay? Writing a Literary Critical Analysis about a piece of literature can be a fun and enlightening experience as you arrive at the story's meaning. Often, looking for and writing about meaning forces you to get in touch with the world around you and even to look at yourself in a different light. The critical thinking skills you develop from this type of assignment also carry over to similar types of writing you will be asked to do in other college courses or in professional writing for your work or social world. Sample Student Essays. "Count Dracula Is Good and Evil" is a student’s literary analysis submitted as part of the English 1020 Final Portfolio. The essay focuses on the complexity of the title character in Bram Stoker’s Dracula. Also the Sample Student Portfolio 1 includes an interpretation of the symbols in Kate Chopin’s The Awakening. Read these student essays to get a sense of the kind of writing you will do. Writing the Literary Critical Analysis Essay Getting Started--Before you begin writing, make sure that you have read the assigned novel
carefully, annotating the text as you go along and marking significant passages
and bits of dialogue for future reference and possible inclusion in your essay.
Drawing from your reading notes, the study questions, and from class discussion
will provide ideas to help you in discovering, developing, and supporting your
topic. As you decide which of the essay topics to select, About Purpose and Audience--Your general purpose in this essay will be to persuade your reader that your interpretation of the novel is valid. To accomplish this purpose, you will build an argument about the novel, focusing on the specific area you have selected to interpret. Interpretation involves your analysis of what the writer has said about a particular character, event, or issue, which can be supported from the novel. When you analyze, you figure out by using the text of the novel why, for example, the character is the way she/he is. If you are making the assertion that Victor Frankenstein desires to be godlike (the thesis claim), you must interpret his character this way. You then incorporate information gathered from the work (you can call it evidence) into your discussion and document it by using a parenthetical citation. Making points and supporting them in this manner help you address your audience's needs in order for them to accept the merit of your interpretation. In The St. Martin’s Guide to Writing (5th ed., 1997), Rise B. Axelrod and Charles R. Cooper caution:
Keep in mind that whether you paraphrase or quote directly from the novel to support your points, you must indicate that you have done so by documenting it. As a rule, you will want make your point of analysis first, the follow it with your support. This helps you avoid sounding like you are retelling the novel for the reader. Regardless of your choice of topics, your essay should not be a simple re-telling or summarizing of the story. Checklist for Writing a Literary Critical Analysis As you set about the task of composing, you must insure your essay submission
Suggested Topics: See the following four novel assignments for suggested topics appropriate for the literary critical analysis. But first, be sure to check with your teacher for the novel selected for this assignment, which may or may not be among these four.
Essay Topics: To which of the following elements discussed in the novel will you apply your interpretation? Select one of the five options below and develop a carefully thought out, appropriately organized, and credibly supported essay using quotation, paraphrase, and summary.
Study Questions: The following questions are intended to help you focus on the important aspects of the novel; they should help you select among the essay topics and discover what you have to say about it to your readers. Write notes in response.
Essay Topics: To which of the following elements discussed in the novel will you apply your interpretation? Select one of the five options below and develop a carefully thought out, appropriately organized, and credibly supported essay using quotation, paraphrase, and summary.
Study Questions: The following questions are intended to help you focus on the important aspects of the novel; they should help you select among the essay topics and discover what you have to say about it to your readers. Write notes in response.
Sandra Cisnero’s The House on Mango Street Essay Topics: To which of the following elements discussed in the novel will you apply your interpretation? Select one of the five options below and develop a carefully thought out, appropriately organized, and credibly supported essay using quotation, paraphrase, and summary. Write notes in response.
Study Questions: The following are intended to help you focus on the important aspects of the novel; they should help you select among the essay topics and discover what you have to say about it to your readers. Write notes in response.
John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men Essay Topics: To which of the following elements discussed in the novel will you apply your interpretation? Select one of the five options below and develop a carefully thought out, appropriately organized, and credibly supported essay using quotation, paraphrase, and summary.
Study Questions: The following questions are intended to help you focus on the important aspects of the novel; they should help you select among the essay topics and discover what you have to say about it to your readers. Write notes in response.
Sample Student Essay 5--"Count Dracula Is Good and Evil" ESSAY COVERSHEET
Count Dracula Is Good and Evil Bram Stoker finds it important that readers of his novel Dracula will hope for the eventual demise of the title character and the success of the protagonists. It is through this cheering on of the heroes that Stoker can keep the story gripping throughout. If the audience loses interest or decides that Count Dracula may as well win the day, the story would have to unravel in an entirely different direction, featuring a triumphant vampire and a conquered England. The author, therefore, takes pains to surround the Dracula character with mystery and ambiguity. He has to sustain the sense that Dracula is a worthy target for the protagonists, an impromptu group of vampire hunters. In order to keep the Count interesting, Stoker develops him as a highly complex character with a good as well as an evil side. Dracula is an undead monster scorned by God and on a mission to fill the country with his brethren; at the same time, he is a former hero whose soul is trapped within the monster. Stoker gives Count Dracula this double nature to make readers pity and admire him as well as hate him, making him a worthy opponent. In fact, his duality gives the protagonists a patriotic and spiritual goal: if they succeed, England will be saved, and the soul of a former hero will be put to rest. To show that Dracula was not always evil, Stoker bases him on a real-life historical figure named Vlad V Dracula, also known as "Vlad the Impaler." There are several inferences Dracula makes about himself that mirror Vlad’s own life and family. Several of the most famous occur in a passage in which Dracula describes his people’s proud history to Jonathan Harker:
The Dracula mentioned in this passage is widely considered to be Vlad the Impaler, who in 1461 was declared a hero for defeating an invading Ottoman army of 250,000 men on the Danube river. Grigore Nandris describes Stoker’s Dracula this way as well, claiming that the vampire, "as reconstructed by Bram Stoker, can be identified with the historical personality of Vlad V, who epitomizes the struggle of his nation for freedom and independence throughout the ages" (114). By tying the Count to Vlad V’s heroic victory in the battle on the Danube, Stoker gives us the idea that Dracula is at heart a hero trapped in body of an undead monster. This can allow the audience to pity Dracula and hope that the protagonists can give him the peace he deserves. The vampire hunters can do this by killing Dracula in a ritualistic way. On the opposite end of the spectrum, readers are led to believe that Dracula is currently evil, for every member of the vampire hunting team perceives him as such. Van Helsing goes on at one point to describe Dracula and vampires in general as "a blot on the face of God’s sunshine; an arrow in the side of Him who died for man" (Stoker 209). With every protagonist cursing Dracula’s character this way, the audience is driven into a constantly pushed hatred of the king vampire and his plan to take over England. Editor Leonard Wolf is an example of this interpretation; in his analysis of the novel he goes so far as to call Dracula the devil himself (28). The fact that these characters all see the Count in the same way could create a problem. But if we look at Dracula carefully, it becomes possible to see him as a former hunter now among the hunted, a creature trying to survive. Eventually, determining his character, much less his "evilness," becomes difficult. As Carol Senf notes,
Upon closer examination of the testimony, the audience may conclude that the Count is not such a bad fellow after all and become unhappy with the final direction of the novel. Fortunately, Stoker is able to establish Dracula’s evil nature beyond a doubt by turning God against him. Dracula and all the undead are marked and weakened by any object bearing God’s presence. This God-versus-Dracula concept is displayed several times throughout the novel. For example, preparing to put Lucy to rest, Van Helsing uses pieces of communion wafer, the literal body of Jesus Christ (Luke 22:9), to hold her at bay (187). He does the same in Romania, using a circle of crushed wafer to guard his campsite (316). The undead can also be repulsed with the cross, a symbol of Christ's death by crucifixion to cleanse man of sin, as stipulated in Matthew 27. The vampire hunters use the cross to drive Dracula from his house at Picadilly. Stoker shows the extent of Dracula’s reaction to the holy increments by saying through Dr.Seward, "It would be impossible to describe the expression of hate and baffled malignity [. . .] which came over the Count’s face" (267). The repulsion by Dracula of one of the most good and holy of Christian concepts marks him as evil. Even though Stoker threatens the perception of Dracula’s evil character through the biased testimony of his protagonists, he makes up for it here by establishing that the Count is not looked upon favorably by God. Dracula’s character is a contrast in itself, with the possibility of a once good man trapped within an evil, undead being. Dracula was once a hero and an icon of good; therefore, he should be pitied and his soul put to rest by the heroes. However, in his current state, Dracula is evil and must be destroyed to save England. This contrast makes him interesting and allows us to side with the protagonists on two fronts. Works Cited The Holy Bible (King James). Ed. William N. Gregory. New York: Random, 1972. Nandris, Grigore. "The Historical Dracula." Comparative Literature: Matter and Method. Ed. Alfred O. Aldridge. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1969. 114-18. Senf, Carol. "Dracula: The Unseen Face in the Mirror." Dracula. Ed. Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal. New York: Norton, 1997. 421-31. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. Ed. Nina Auerbach and David J. Skal. New York: Norton, 1997. 2-327. Wolf, Leonard, ed. The Essential Dracula. New York: Penguin, 1975. Questions for Critical Thinking:
Meeting Requirements: Individual Essay 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 Checklist My submission of draft 2 of my work in progress includes the following basic requirements:
THE ESSAY ASSIGNMENTS--OPTION TWO DESCRIPTION: Under Essay Assignment Option Two, you will research a single topic area or field and write an Annotated Bibliography and two essays on subjects within that single topic area or field. The two essays, as assigned by your instructor, will be (1) either Essay 2: Speculation about Causes and Effects or Essay 3: Proposal to Solve a Problem and (2) Essay 4: Position Paper. Good researchers know the tools of their trade. To acquire a broad knowledge of your topic area, you will need to find the best reference tools in the field and learn how to use them, and you will need to find a number of sources for the essays you will write. To this end, you will begin this group of assignments by developing an annotated bibliography that lists, describes, and evaluates 12 sources of relevance to your topic area. For more information, see the Annotated Bibliography Assignment and the Library Worksheet Assignment. CHOOSING A TOPIC AREA: You should think carefully when choosing your area. The area should be significant, broad, and complex enough to sustain your interest and the attention of your readers through three assignments--the annotated bibliography and two related essays. A good place to start in this selection process is your major discipline or a field in which you have some expertise or special interest. Once you have chosen your major area of interest, think about some of the topics that are of current concern to professionals in related fields, or talk to a professor or a professional in those fields. Below are three examples based on actual student profiles:
If you have not chosen or even tentatively chosen a major, you should select a topic area you have special interest or expertise in. Or you may select a area or issue of current interest and contention such as bioethics, animal rights, the environment, the recurring fuel crisis, gender and sexuality, educational testing, education, school discipline, sports, and so forth (see the list of Position Paper topics on pages 86-87) THE RESEARCH GATEWAY GUIDES: A good way to begin choosing an area and finding the research tools appropriate to it is to go to the online MTSU Library Research Gateway and investigate the Subject Guides (below the second blue bar) where you will find subject areas such as Nutrition/Food Science, Education, Literature, Biology, African American Studies, Women’s Studies, Recording Industry, Fashion Design, Political Science, and so forth. Click on any one of these and you will be directed to databases in the field. Annotated Bibliography Assignment DESCRIPTION: For the next two essay assignments, you are asked to research one topic area from which you will draw your specific subjects for the essays. As preparation to write the essays, you are to submit an annotated bibliography on the topic. See your class schedule for due dates. So, you ask, what is an annotated bibliography and why are we writing one? As you probably know, a bibliography is a list of readings (e.g., newspaper and magazine articles, books, journal essays) on a particular subject, and as you have learned from your English 1020 study this semester, to annotate is to record your explanation and reactions to a text. Therefore, an annotated bibliography lists, describes, and evaluates sources on a subject.
LENGTH: 12 sources annotated with five sentences each. GRADE: This assignment is worth 100 points (see Teacher’s Feedback to the Annotated Bibliography for distribution of points) and will count 10% of your course grade. Two drafts are required for the assignment. Draft 1 will be graded, and you may earn up to 10 additional revision points for draft 2. STEPS IN COMPLETING THE ASSIGNMENT:
CONTENT REQUIREMENTS: Sources
Annotations
REQUIREMENTS FOR FORMAT: The following guidelines are extremely important.
SAMPLE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY: Here is the first page and two sample entries from a student’s annotated bibliography. Annotated Bibliography on the Construction of Gender Beetham, Margaret. A Magazine of Her Own: Domesticity and Desire in the Women’s Magazine. London: Routledge, 1996.
Steinem, Gloria. "Men and Women Talking." In The Gender Reader. Ed. Evelyn Ashton-Jones, Gary A. Olsen, Merry G. Perry. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000. 333-46.
INSTRUCTIONS: Use this worksheet to identify your topic area and begin finding research aids and sources in your subject area. As you work on it, start compiling a working bibliography. When you find useful material, pause to photocopy, download/print out, and annotate it for your notes. If you have difficulty locating information, consult a reference librarian, who will happily assist you. TOPIC AREA. In one or two complete sentences, explain your topic area below. REFERENCE WORKS IN YOUR TOPIC AREA (REFERENCE AREA, FIRST FLOOR, 100-999). Consult two specialized reference work in your subject area for information on the subject or some aspect of it. (For instance, in the Reference Area on the first floor, you can find the Encyclopedia of Psychology, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Magill's Critical Survey of Science Fiction, Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, and McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.) List all the information for each reference work below. (1) Reference work:__________________________________________________
Volume: __________ BOOKS. Use Voyager, the MTSU online catalog, to search for books related to your topic. List all the following information for two useful looking titles below. (1) Author[s]___________________________________________________________________________ PERIODICAL INDEXES AND DATABASES. Check a printed index or electronic database to find periodical and journal articles on your subject. Choose A or B below and provide all information called for. A. PRINTED PERIODICAL INDEXES (FIRST FLOOR, PERIODICALS). Look for articles on your subject in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Also check a journal index in an academic discipline related to your subject. In the reference area you will find the Humanities Index (arts, history, philosophy, etc.), Social Sciences Index (psychology, anthropology, sociology, etc.), Public Affairs Information Service Bulletin (economics, history, current events), MLA International Bibliography (literature and criticism), Book Review Digest or Index (book reviews). See Poole's Index for articles in nineteenth-century periodicals. Some useful specialized indexes are the Art Index, Biological and Agricultural Index, Applied Science and Technology Index, Education Index, and Psychological Abstracts. After finding articles in two indexes, list the indexes and the complete information for the articles as instructed below. (1) Index:_____________________________________________________________________________ COMPUTER DATABASES. Access InfoTrac’s Expanded Academic Index/ASAP database. Also click on a link from one of the MTSU Library Research Gateway Subject Guides to access a database appropriate to your subject—under Current Issues, CQ Researcher; under Psychology, ERIC or PsycINFO; under History, Historical Abstracts or Project Muse; under Literature, the MLA Bibliography, etc.). After searching two databases for articles on your topic, list the databases and the complete information for the articles below. (1) Database:__________________________________________________________________________ NEWSPAPER INDEXES/DATABASES. Search for articles related to your subject area or field in two newspaper databases such as Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe or the National Newspaper Index. Then list the complete information for the articles below. (1) Database:___________________________________________________________________________ INTERNET SOURCES. Search the Internet for Web sites or articles related to your subject area. List your search engine (Google, AltaVista, Yahoo!, etc.). Then complete all information for two Web site or articles below. (1) Search engine:_____________________Author/owner:________________________________________ WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY. Your next step is to compile a working bibliography. On another sheet of paper (or note cards as required by your teacher), list, in alphabetical order and in correct MLA documentation form, your twenty best sources. See class schedule for due date.
THE ESSAY COVERSHEET ASSIGNMENT The Requirement For each of the five essay assignments you write in English 1020, you are required to have coversheets beginning with draft 2, the peer response draft. These may be handwritten (in blue or black ink) or typed (as require by your instructor). Of course, coversheets are essential for each of the essays submitted for the Mid-term and Final Portfolios. How to Complete the Essay Coversheet Completing each Essay Coversheet is an important component of the writing process. It is the step where you formally state what your intentions are in terms of audience, purpose, and thesis--the three major considerations of all writing situations. Additionally, you re-examine your writer's role in the essay, an important aid for establishing your tone. Completing the coversheet items will help you think through the rhetorical problem at hand: "I am writing to whom? about what? and for what purpose?" Coversheets also figure as a major consideration in the evaluation of your portfolio. In essence, the coversheet is a contract in which you make certain promises to your reader(s). Do not mistakenly regard this task as merely superficial or as window dressing for your paper; the coversheet should be a thoughtfully composed set of responses that will assist the readers (peer group members, your instructor, norming-group faculty members) in evaluating the result of your efforts. The degree of correspondence between the information provided in the essay coversheet and the finished essay carries a great deal of weight, particularly in the Mid-term Portfolio and Final Portfolio evaluations. For each essay, complete a coversheet after you have written a discovery draft and then submit the coversheet with all subsequent drafts of the essay, revising the coversheet as needed if your approach to the essay changes. Sample coversheets have been provided for you with all sample student essays and the Sample Student Portfolios.
Smart writers try out their ideas on others before they finalize their writing. They want to know what works and what doesn’t. Our study in Portfolio Composition 1020 reflects the way writers in the business community and professional worlds operate. They seek advice about their writing. Therefore, an important component of our course is reading and responding to peer writing. Sometimes your instructor may ask you to respond orally, but most times in writing. While your peers will have the benefit of your response to their work in progress, you will have the benefit of their response to yours. Then you both will have the opportunity to revise your writing before you submit it to your instructor. A Plan for Reading and Responding to Your Peers’ Writing This four-step plan calls for you to read and respond to five different peer writers over the course of the semester. Your teacher will set aside a peer response day for each of the five writing assignments. During the class period, you will accomplish the following:
Tips for Successfully Reading and Responding to Your Peers’ Writing As a peer reader/respondent, you will best serve the community of writers that make up your writing class if you will read your peers’ writing carefully and then respond critically to its rhetorical strengths and weaknesses. Reading for rhetorical strengths and weaknesses. One of your goals in Portfolio Composition 1020 is to learn to read like a writer. When you engage in peer response you should read like a writer. Not only do you want to read for meaning but also to analyze and evaluate how the meanings in your peers’ essays are presented:
In Reading Critically, Writing Well (6th ed.), Rise Axelrod and Charles Cooper write,
Completing the Peer Response Sheets will insure that you respond to the rhetorical strengths and weaknesses in your peer’s writing. Also completing these forms will serve to remind you what is important in your own writing. Avoiding the grammar and mechanics trap. You fail to read like a writer when all you respond to in a peer’s essay is the grammar and mechanics. Correctness, of course, is important, but surface errors (misspellings and misplaced commas, for example) are editing concerns best addressed in later drafts. What peers need from you at this stage of their work in progress is attention to global matters: purpose, thesis, audience, development, organization, documentation needs, and writer’s tone. No matter if the essay is correct grammatically and mechanically, the writer fails if she or he doesn’t have a specific purpose, a unifying thesis, and a clearly defined audience. Sample Essay 1 (Summary and Response) Peer Response Sheet Essay writer’s name_______________________ Peer’s name__________________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
The Portfolio Assignment Your hard work this semester will culminate in the selections you include in your Final Portfolio, three essays Essays 1,2, 3, 4, and 5. By now, you have had benefit of preliminary teacher feedback on your Discovery Draft, feedback from a classmate on your Peer Draft, and more in-depth suggestions for improving your essay on the Teacher's Draft. At this point, you are ready for even more substantial and effective revision, the key to success in the Portfolio System. But what does revision really mean? How should you incorporate your teacher's comments? As you perhaps already know, the word revise comes from the French revoir, which means to see again. Rise Axelrod and Charles Cooper suggest in Reading Critically, Writing Well, 4th ed., "The great opportunity revising offers is the chance to rethink what you have written given your purpose and your readers' expectations. Assume you will want to make bold changes and add substantial amounts of new material. Be prepared to cut sentences, move sentences, reorder paragraphs" (20). Your instructor's suggestions will reflect this type of global changes for improving your writing. In revision, you should keep your eyes on the big picture, global issues, not surface matters of grammar and mechanics. Experienced writers have trained themselves through practice to revise by reading their drafts critically several times, each time for different concerns. These concerns will vary somewhat as your rhetorical situation changes--whether you are speculating about causes and effects, making a proposition to solve a problem, and the like. However, you will always include revising for audience, for purpose, for organization, for details, for language use. The recommendation to give your paper several readings suggests that you should not try to revise for all major aspects of the rhetorical situation at once. It is also a very good idea to compile a Revision Agenda where you list the major problems you have determined need further attention. In this way, you can be assured of not overlooking weaknesses in your essay. Incorporating Instructor Comments--Now that you have a general idea of what revision means, how should you approach incorporating instructor comments? Your teacher will respond to your writing with an eye to its strengths and weaknesses. Once you receive feedback, whether on the individual essay's Teacher Feedback Sheet or on the Mid-term Portfolio Evaluation Form, read it carefully to help you determine how to proceed to revise and, thus, improve your efforts for the Final Portfolio submission. The best way to read the Teacher's Feedback Sheet is to (1) read the teacher's general response first; (2) next, read the teacher's specific response to issues of purpose, audience, development, organization, language usage, and those specific to the essay; and (3) finally, read the teacher's comments on the margins of your paper. Of course, you will also deal with sentence-level corrections (see "Assignment: Sentence-Level Corrections" for specific instructions), but remember that correcting grammar and mechanical errors alone does not constitute revision. Be sure to ask your teacher about comments you do not understand. Much of your success as a writer in Portfolio Composition will be determined by your ability to revise your writing effectively over the course of fifteen weeks of writing. The Portfolio System recognizes that you are a developing writer who must learn the craft of revision. Think of your teacher as your writing coach, take your teacher's suggestions for revision to heart, and remember that your best writing will always be a product of rewriting. After you are satisfied that your revised essays contain effective global changes, you are ready for the next steps of portfolio readiness: (1) editing to improve your prose style and (2) editing to eliminate errors in grammar and mechanics. Improving Your Prose Style for Portfolio Submissions It is important to have something significant to say and to say it well; that is, be sure to clothe your ideas in memorable, emphatic language that is also dressed in a style appropriate for college-level writing. Therefore, the last step in revision before proofreading your writing for correctness is polishing your prose style. These six questions should help you know what to look for as you go about improving your prose style. ARE YOU AVOIDING UTILITY WORDS LIKE "THING"? See Harbrace 20a(3). AVOIDING TRITE EXPRESSIONS LIKE "EASY AS PIE"? See Harbrace 20b. AVOIDING PASSIVE VOICE? See Harbrace 29d(1). Passive voice The peace treaty ending World War II in the Pacific was signed by General Douglas MacArthur on the deck of the USS Missouri. Active voice On the deck of the USS Missouri, General Douglas MacArthur signed the peace treaty ending World War II in the Pacific. AVOIDING WEAK VERBS, THOSE FORMED FROM "BE," "DO," AND "HAVE"? See Harbrace 29d(2).
USING COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION APPROPRIATELY TO SHOW RELATIONSHIP OF IDEAS IN SENTENCES? See Harbrace Section 24 for suggestions about subordination and coordination. WRITING WITH SENTENCE VARIETY? Be sure to Vary sentence length. Vary sentence openings by occasionally
, we discussed the difficulties of being a single parent. (See Harbrace Handbook, pages 68-69 for lists of words.) Beginning with prepositional, verbal, or absolute phrases:
Beginning with a dependent clause: , the thought of a medium-rare steak no longer tempted her. Vary sentence forms.
Editing Out Grammatical and Mechanical Errors Why edit for correctness? Much of your credibility as a writer depends on your writing correct prose. Readers are turned off by misspellings, comma misuses, sentence fragments, and the like. "Sloppy grammar and mechanics means a sloppy thinker," they believe. While correctness will not salvage poorly conceived ideas, incorrectness will always mar good thinking. When proofreading your writing, you focus your attention on grammar, punctuation, spelling, and typing errors, but often these mistakes are easy to overlook because you are too familiar with the content of your essay and the meaning of your sentences--you read over your mistakes. One technique you may find helpful in avoiding this pitfall is reading your writing backwards, beginning with the last sentence. Reading backwards makes it harder to pay attention to content, therefore making it easier to spot minor problems in your writing. Also you may want to exchange papers with a classmate and proofread to spot each other's errors. Whatever proofreading method you use, be sure to edit out of your writing the following common errors. *Comma splice and fused sentences 3 *The MTSU English Department recognizes these errors as the most serious. Failure to learn to edit out these errors in your writing will result in a failed portfolio and failure in the course. Your English 1020 instructor will mark examples of these errors in your writing early in the course so that you will have time to learn to avoid them. Students who write with these errors should attend the MTSU Writing Center (Peck Hall 325) for special instruction.
Instructions: Make sure that you arrive in class with all the materials for Mid-term Portfolio submission. Use this checklist as a reminder of what is required. Late mid-term portfolios will not be accepted except under extraordinary circumstances. As part of my Mid-term Portfolio submission I have brought to class and adhered to the following: ______Mid-term portfolio essay
______English Folder
Assessing a Sample Portfolio: A Concluding Activity DESCRIPTION: Your second semester of composition is nearly over; soon you will submit your best writing in your Final Portfolio for a grade. Since you have spent the semester evaluating arguments, you should be able to make fair and accurate judgments of student portfolios yourself. In this workshop, you will evaluate a sample student portfolio. This activity should help you assess student writing, and ultimately your own writing. It should lead you to think of ways to improve your own portfolio as you clarify, amplify, and polish your best work for submission. BEFORE CLASS, prepare for this activity in the following ways:
IN CLASS (WORKSHOP)
Tips for Reading and Evaluating a Sample Portfolio
Instructions: Make sure you arrive in class with all the materials required for the Final Portfolio submission. Use this checklist as a reminder of what is required. Late submissions will be accepted only under extraordinary circumstances. As part of my Final Portfolio submission I have brought to class and adhered to the following: ______Revised three (3) essays and coversheets from essay assignments 1,
2, 3, 4, 5
While the Final Portfolio includes only selected pieces that represent your best work, the English Folder contains all the writing you have produced over the semester. It is a compilation that evidences the composition process and your development as a writer--invention strategies, writer's questions, peer response, teacher feedback, multiple drafts--in other words, a body of work. Your folder will be checked periodically by your teacher, not only to insure that you are binding in it all vital components from each essay (invention strategies, multiple drafts, peer group materials, and the like), but also to check on the thoroughness and correctness of the on-going sentence-level corrections assignment. Carrying through with this component of the course requirements offers you the means of identifying your common errors, correcting them, and recording them throughout the course. Submission of the completed English Folder is a required component of the course. English Folders are kept on file in the English Department for one semester so that we have a complete record of students' work should questions arise about completion of requirements, assessment, or plagiarism. Refer to your course syllabus for the date your English Folder is due. Assignment: Sentence-Level Corrections Requirements--Beginning with the in-class introductory essay, you are required to correct sentence-level errors that your teacher marks in your essays. Following the instructions below, make these corrections soon after your writing is returned and include the corrections in your folder. When corrections are done in class, have your teacher check your work before you leave class. Purpose--The purpose of these sentence-level corrections is to help you identify the most common grammatical and mechanical errors you are likely to write so that you will not make these mistakes in the essays you submit for the portfolio. To pass English 1020, you must be able to write Standard American English, which in part means writing free of the following errors: sentence fragments (Harbrace 2), comma spliced or run-on sentences (Harbrace 3), subject/verb and pronoun/antecedent disagreements (Harbrace 6a and 6b), verb errors (Harbrace 7), the misuse or omission of the apostrophe (Harbrace 15), and misspellings (Harbrace 18). Also see The Twenty-One Most Common Errors. Procedure for Making Corrections: When your work is returned, it will be in the order that it should appear in the folder. Place a blank sheet of paper on top of the marked essay and bind it with the earlier drafts in the folder. Then correct all Harbrace-numbered errors by following these steps (revisions done incorrectly must be redone):
Important Notes--(1) If you have several errors of the same number, there is no need to write the rule more than once, but do correct all sentences that contain these errors; (2) If you have a sentence with multiple errors, write all the rules and then rewrite the sentence one time, correcting all errors. Reminder--Keeping your English Folder up to date is your responsibility; you can't pass the course without a completed folder. Instructions: In order to receive credit for the course, you must submit your English Folder. Make sure you arrive in class on the day scheduled for your final examination with all the materials required for its submission. Use this checklist as a reminder of what is required. As part of my English Folder submission I have brought to class and adhered to the following: ______Included all materials returned to me for all five writings:
______Completed all sentence-level corrections and had them checked
PART THREE—TWO SAMPLE STUDENT PORTFOLIOS
INTRODUCTION: TWO SUCCESSFUL STUDENT PORTFOLIOS For the purpose of demonstrating the achievable results possible in English 1020 Portfolio Composition, this section of your handbook provides copies of two students’ final portfolios. The Portfolios earned better-than-average grades, which means that in each collection of essays as a whole, the writer achieves a level of effectiveness that is above that expected from most first-year university students. These student portfolios illustrate two different approaches to fulfilling the requirements of the final portfolio. Whereas one student writes on sundry topics, the other unifies the portfolio around a particular concern. Student Portfolio 1 presents Essays 2, 3, and 5 assignments on a variety of subjects: the causes for crime in the NFL, the need for a state income tax in Tennessee, and an interpretation of the symbols in Kate Chopin’s novel The Awakening. Student Portfolio 2 presents Essays 2, 3, and 5 assignments on topics in the general area of child welfare: the effect of televised violence on children, a solution to child abuse, and a case for open adoption. Remember these are at least third drafts of each essay and that much painstaking revision has taken place to achieve this level of writing. You will note, however, that in each portfolio some essays are more effective in achieving their purposes than others. As you read each of the pieces included, pay particular attention to how the writer meets the specific requirements of the essay genre. Also focus on the coversheets and note the high degree of correspondence between what the writer has promised to concentrate on in terms of audience, purpose, thesis and writer's role and what is actually delivered in the essay. While not all first-semester writers will reach this level of achievement, these portfolios serve as models of effective writing that each writer should strive for in English 1020. The essays collected in the student portfolios that follow address four English 1020 essay assignments (see Five Portfolio Writing Assignments for a brief description of these assignments and the Essay Assignments in PART TWO for a more detailed description). Note: Some individuals’ names have been omitted or changed in these portfolio essays to preserve anonymity, and in a few instances, the student’s writing has been edited for modeling purposes. Sample Student Portfolio 1 by Daniel Whaley April 30, 2001 Dear Portfolio Reader: At the beginning of the year, I felt somewhat confident about my ability as a writer. However, I was a little uneasy about my ability to argue effectively and document sources correctly since I had not had much experience doing these things before this class. Now I can say that I am very confident with myself as a writer. I have found that my strengths are arguing effectively, integrating quotes and paraphrases into my papers, and organizing my essays in such a way that they are easy to understand. I could, however, use more work on sentence variety and word choice. In short, I need to build a larger vocabulary with which I can choose more effective words for my essays. The three essays that I chose to include in my portfolio are Essay 2 entitled "Crime in the NFL: Are Players Violent and Untouchable?," Essay 3 entitled "Get What You Pay For: A Tennessee State Income Tax," and Essay 5 entitled "Symbolism in Chopin’s The Awakening." These three essays are the ones that I enjoyed writing the most, and I feel that they have the strongest arguments. Also, I think that these essays fulfill the assignment better than the other two essays I wrote. I made many global changes to these essays before submitting them in the portfolio. For example, I reworked the concluding paragraphs in essays 3 and 5. I also added a paragraph of counter argument in essay 3 to help account for my readers’ objections. I am most pleased with essay 3 because of its strong argument and my strong feelings about the subject. So, what have I learned about argumentative writing through the portfolio system? I feel that I have learned how to effectively argue a subject. I have learned that I must account for my readers’ objections and appeal to their emotions and ability to reason when trying to convince them that my position is correct. I have learned how to correctly cite sources and lead readers from one idea to another with a transition sentence. All of these aspects of my writing have improved, and I feel that my portfolio essays reflect this improvement. Yours truly, ESSAY 5 ESSAY COVERSHEET--Symbolism in Chopin's The Awakening
Symbolism in Kate Chopin’s The Awakening Kate Chopin’s novel The Awakening is now considered one of the great pieces of literature in American history. Despite being condemned as "sex fiction" when it was first published ("Books" 166), The Awakening has contributed to the liberation of women and the feminist movement in America. The novel has also been praised for its brilliance as a work of art in its excellent characterization and effective use of symbols. The plot of the novel focuses on the lonely and unhappy Edna Pontellier, who marries into a Creole society in New Orleans in the late 19th-century and must adapt to her submissive roles as a wife and mother. She falls in love with a young Creole gentleman named Robert Lebrun and begins to awaken to the feelings of love and sensuality that have been denied her. She rebels against her restrictive roles by moving out of her husband’s house while he is away. In the end she commits suicide in the sea as a final act of rebellion. Chopin uses many auditory and visual symbols to foreshadow the plot and convey her themes of rebellion and isolation. First of all, the use of symbols such as the music, the lady in black, and the two lovers are instrumental in the foreshadowing of the plot. Chopin includes music early in the novel to foreshadow the death of Edna. For example, in the opening chapter at Grand Isle, a summer resort for Creole families where Edna and her family are vacationing, Chopin mentions that "two young girls, the Farival twins were playing excerpts form ‘Zampa’ upon the piano" (3). Zampa is a French opera that involves the death of a lover in the sea. Later in the novel Mademoiselle Reisz, a guest at Grand Isle, plays piano for Edna as she "glided from the Chopin into the quivering love-notes of Isolde’s song [. . .]" (61). This quotation is a reference to Wagner’s opera Tristan and Isolde in which Isolde is heartbroken at the death of her lover Tristan and kills herself. The lady in black and the two lovers also foreshadow Edna’s death. In many scenes the lady in black is seen following the two lovers. For example, when Edna and Robert go to a nearby island to attend church, the lady in black and the two lovers accompany them as Chopin writes, "The lovers were all alone," and, "The lady in black was counting her beads for the third time" (33). Since black is the color of death, it could be suggested that the lady in black is really death walking behind the two lovers. This symbol foreshadows how Edna falls in love, which ends in her death. In the same sense that Chopin uses symbols to foreshadow the plot, she also uses them to convey themes such as Edna’s rebellion. For example, the very first sentence of the novel is "A green and yellow parrot, which hung in a cage outside the door [. . .]" (3). The fact that the parrot is caged represents society’s restrictions on Edna before the reader is even aware of such a situation (Triechler 264). Also, the lady in black, the two lovers, and the mother-women such as Edna’s friend Adele Ratignolle, who sacrifice themselves for their children, symbolize the way that the Creole society represses Edna (May 212). At Grand Isle the lady in black and the two lovers accompany Edna and Robert many times, but in New Orleans, Edna’s only acquaintances are Madame Ratignolle and other mother-women. Edna must conform to this Creole society to avoid being isolated. In addition, the birds symbolize Edna’s rebellion. For example, Mademoiselle Reisz offers these words of caution to Edna: "The bird that would soar above the level plain of tradition and prejudice must have strong wings" (Chopin 79). In other words, Edna must be strong in order to "soar" or rebel against the "level plain of tradition" or her role as a woman in a Creole society. Of course, Edna is not strong enough both to live and rebel against the Creole society. Chopin once again uses the bird to symbolize this lack of strength when at the end, before Edna’s suicide, she writes, "A bird with a broken wing was beating the air above, reeling, fluttering, circling disabled down, down to the water" (108). Edna is, in essence, "a bird with a broken wing"; she is strong enough to rebel, but not strong enough emotionally to live in her rebellion. Coupled with Edna’s rebellion is her extreme isolation. Chopin uses the sea to represent Edna’s isolation. For example, early in the novel Chopin writes, "The voice of the sea is seductive; never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude; to lose itself in mazes of inward contemplation" (14). Later, just before Edna’s suicide, Chopin repeats the sentence with some key phrases left out: "The voice of the sea is seductive; never ceasing, whispering, clamoring, murmuring, inviting the soul to wander in abysses of solitude" (108). The fact that the phrase "to lose itself in mazes of inward contemplation" is left out signifies that at this point, Edna has awakened and is no longer "contemplating" her identity as a human being (May 212). Because of this realization, Edna is isolated and knows that she is different from other women in the Creole society. Finally, the fact that she commits suicide in the sea is symbolic of the extreme solitude she must have felt. Those last few moments of her life spent by herself in the sea enhance Chopin’s theme of solitude in the novel. In the end, Kate Chopin has been praised for her use of symbols in The Awakening to emphasize her view on the roles of women in the late 19th-century. These auditory and visual symbols contribute to the effectiveness of the novel by foreshadowing the plot and enhancing her themes of rebellion and isolation. Works Cited "Books of the Day." Chicago Times-Herald (1 June 1899). Rpt. in Culley 166. Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. Culley 3-109. Culley, Margo, ed. The Awakening: An Authoritative Text, Contexts, and Criticism. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 1994. May, John R. "Local Color in The Awakening." The Southern Review (Fall 1970). Rpt in Culley 211-16. Triechler, Paula A. "The Construction of Ambiguity in The Awakening: A Linguistic Analysis." Language in Literature and Society (1980). Rpt. in Culley 262-71. ESSAY 2 ESSAY COVERSHEET--Crime in the NFL: Are Players Violent and Untouchable?
Crime in the NFL: Are Players Violent and Untouchable? Football has become one of Americans’ favorite sports. Millions of people turn on their televisions on Sundays to watch teams battle for supremacy in the National Football League (NFL). During the games violence is displayed at a level that is greater than it has ever been, and players are praised and idolized for this violence. A study conducted by Jeff Benedict in 1997 finds that out of 509 NFL players, 21.4 percent had at one time been accused of a crime greater than a misdemeanor (Cannon 30). To put it in simpler terms, one out of every five NFL players has had some major trouble with the law. Why? Does the violent nature of football cause the players to commit acts of violence in real life? Or does the praise players receive make them feel they have freedom to do things they would not normally do? The latest studies and examples answer "yes" to these questions. Crime among NFL football players is on the rise primarily because of the increasing level of violence in the game, a feeling among the players that they are untouchable or above the law, and an increasing number of players leaving college early. First of all, one likely cause of crime by NFL players is the violence that is exhibited on the playing field. Sociologist Don Sabo states that "Boys can come up in contact sports and learn how to solve problems physically, and it sticks with them" (qtd. in Cannon 30). Sports such as football actually encourage contact and violence. A child growing up playing football might learn to believe that the best way to solve a problem off the field is through violence. Unless his parents or coaches teach him otherwise, he will not develop the problem solving and communication skills needed to coexist in society. Rae Carruth and Ray Lewis are recent examples of players who tried to solve their problems with violence. Rae Carruth, who used to play for the Carolina Panthers, was accused of shooting his pregnant girlfriend to death and was found guilty on three counts, thus receiving an eighteen-year prison sentence (Rubin 67). Ray Lewis, who still plays for the Baltimore Ravens, was accused of murdering two victims in a brawl on the streets in Atlanta and was acquitted (however, Lewis was found guilty of a lesser obstruction of justice charge) (Gibeaut 38). Both of these players could have solved their problems in a better way, but they chose to resort to violence. The frightening truth may be that as football becomes more violent, its players become slaves to the violence and, therefore, cannot control themselves. While the violence in the game is a main reason that players commit crimes, there are other reasons. One of these causes is probably the excessive praise that players receive from fans. Some players may feel untouchable and, thus, fear no consequences for their actions. A study completed in the late 1990’s shows that approximately 10 football players were convicted of sexual assault out of 217 accusations between 1986 and 1995 (Benedict and Yaeger 176). That leaves 207 players who were not convicted. Why were they not convicted? In many of these cases, the credibility of the witness is a key factor. Many times the victims in these cases are "groupies, strippers, and prostitutes," and their testimony is not very credible to jurors (Benedict and Yaeger 178). Therefore, in a trial, an accused player actually gains an advantage by testifying about outrageous sexual behavior because the jurors are more likely to believe the testimony of a famous athlete than that of the victim (Benedict and Yaeger 178). Also, many victims feel overwhelmed by the athletes’ money and power and do not even report the incident (Gibeaut 39). Coaches and owners also contribute to players’ feelings of immunity from the law. For example, before Bam Morris, a former Baltimore Ravens running back, violated his probation for drug conviction in 1998 and was forced to serve jail time in Texas, Morris was encouraged by owner Art Modell to stay in training camp instead of going to serve his probation when Modell told him that "people would take care of him" (Benedict and Yaeger 57). Also, Brian Billick, coach of the Baltimore Ravens, blasted the press for asking questions about Ray Lewis’ murder trial in an attempt to protect Lewis before the Super Bowl 2001. If courts, coaches and owners continue to protect these NFL players, the problem will only get worse. Players who see little or no consequences for their actions have no reason to refrain from crimes such as these. Finally, in addition to the violent nature of the sport and players not being held accountable for their actions, players leaving college early to go to the NFL is likely another cause of the increasing crime in the NFL. Many players decide to enter the NFL before finishing college, sometimes leaving after their sophomore or junior year. Because of the extremely large amounts of money given to football players when they enter the NFL, many collegiate players do not see the value of a degree and a quality education. In fact, some players might see getting a degree as an obstacle between them and money and thus leave college early. These players enter the NFL without having learned the values of hard work, self-discipline, and, more importantly, they have not fully developed as human beings. They become infatuated with money, power, sex, drugs, and violence. Their lack of self-control causes them to commit crimes that possibly could have been avoided if they had stayed in college and gotten their degree before entering the NFL. In the end, the increasing number of crimes committed by NFL players can be attributed to the violent nature of football, the uncritical adoration that players receive, and the large number of players leaving college early. These players are held in such high esteem that they may actually feel that they are above the law. As Jeff Benedict, co-author of a book about criminals in the NFL, says, "Privilege is what breeds irresponsibility in a lot of cases" (qtd. in Cannon 30). Works Cited Benedict, Jeff, and Don Yaeger. Pros and Cons. New York: Warner Books, 1998. Cannon, Angie, and Jeff Glasser. "Murder and the NFL." US News and World Report 14 Feb. 2000.11 InfoTrac. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. Feb. 2001 <http://web1.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/ 529/993/23895788w3/pur1=rc1_EAIM_0_A59329626&dyn+5!xrz_2_0_A59329626?sw_aep=mtsu_main>. Gibeaut, John. "When Pros Turn Cons." ABA Journal 86 (2000): 38-39. Rubin, Adam. "Carruth Will Serve 18-24." Daily News [New York] 23 Jan. 2001. Lexis-Nexis. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 11 Feb. 2001 <http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_ansset- GeHauK0-EVERMsSEVERUBRVU-Waa4%25a3to_rng_%25a4%25a3&wchp=dGLSIS- ISIzv&_md5=b4baa19e97d135ee4036867095e6cf53>. ESSAY 3 COVERSHEET--Get What You Pay For: A Tennessee State Income Tax
Get What You Pay For: A Tennessee State Income Tax We Tennesseans, as a whole, oppose almost any kind of taxes. Whenever new tax proposals float around the legislature, we scream "bloody murder" in opposition of taxes. For this reason, Tennessee is one of the few states in the country without a state income tax. The majority of the state government’s income is generated by the 6% sales tax. Now, however, the sales tax appears to be incapable of fully supporting its citizens. Last year, the government of Tennessee spent $200 million more than it took in. Since Tennessee is one of many states that must have a balanced budget every year, this shortcoming has increased many fears of a government shut down. This financial crisis affects all citizens of the state of Tennessee through state controlled programs such as education and TennCare. In order to solve this problem, the legislature approved what Governor Sundquist calls a "Fudge-It Budget" that purposely overestimates the revenue and uses "one-time funds" for yearly expenses (Cheek). This temporary solution, in essence, creates more problems than it solves. Many solutions such as more sales tax and Governor Sundquist’s plan have been proposed, but the permanent, long-term solution is the dreaded state income tax. First of all, one possible solution to the state’s budget crisis is to increase the sales tax. This solution is not feasible because the sales tax is both unfair and unreliable. The sales tax is unfair to citizens because it taxes a greater amount of a poor person’s income than a rich person’s income. In order to illustrate this point, consider this example. Two families spend $100 dollars on groceries. One family makes $40,000 a year, while the other family makes $20,000 a year. The state government receives 6% of the sale, which in this case is $6. Six dollars is a greater percent of the $20,000 dollar income than of the $40,000 income. Therefore, the rich family is taxed less than the poor family, and the sales tax is unfair. Next, the sales tax is unreliable because there are many unpredictable factors that affect the state’s revenue. The sales tax depends on citizens buying products in stores. The economy naturally fluctuates, and during times of a recession, the government would get less money than it might have predicted. Also, with the rise of shopping on the Internet, many customers are shopping there instead of in stores because there is no sales tax online, and Tennessee loses out altogether. Finally, Tennessee is losing money because other states such as Georgia, North Carolina, and Kentucky have a lower sales tax than Tennessee. Tennessee citizens living near the border can cross into other states and buy the same products cheaper. Another possible solution to Tennessee’s financial woes is Governor Don Sundquist’s latest budget proposal. Sundquist proposes to reduce the state sales tax from 6% to 4% and local sales taxes by .75%, while taxing previously exempt professional and personal services with the 4% sales tax ("Sundquist’s). These services include haircuts, dental and medical bills, electric and water bills among many other services that would be taxed just like everything else. Sundquist’s plan would also charge a 6% business tax on salaries of business owners greater than $72,600 a year ("Sundquist’s"). But will Sundquist’s plan work? Other states such as Florida have tried similar plans, and they have failed ("Sundquist’s"). But even if this plan could solve Tennessee’s problems, there is much opposition. Many people feel that it is unfair for the government to profit from personal services such as medical treatment and other necessities of life. This leaves us with a final solution: the state income tax. Yet there is still much opposition throughout the state and the legislature. Those opposed to the income tax say that they do not want to give more money to a government that is wasting it. They feel that the sales tax would be enough to support the citizens of Tennessee if the government would spend its money more wisely. But isn’t our money spent wisely? Isn’t the majority of our tax dollars spent on public education and TennCare? Governor Sundquist has stated that his number one priority is education. What could be more important than these programs which our government provides? What many of us do not realize is that the sales tax can no longer support these programs as it has before. As a result, Tennessee now ranks among the worst states in education, and the TennCare program has many problems. In order to produce the money needed to save these programs, Tennessee must have a state income tax. State Senator Bob Rochelle has proposed an income tax that would eliminate all sales taxes on food, clothing, and non-prescription drugs (Ferrar). The tax structure would be a graduated state income tax in which a family of four making more than $41,000 a year would pay a higher percentage of their income than those making less than that amount (Ferrar). This plan would bring in about the same amount of money as Sundquist’s plan, but without the unfairness and the tax on personal services. As long as we continue to refuse a state income tax, Tennessee will suffer in education and health care. We are known throughout the nation as the "Volunteer State" because thousands of Tennesseans volunteered their lives in battle to help our nation. Now we won’t even volunteer our money to help ourselves. Most of us do not realize that we get what we pay for. Until we are willing to pay for government programs by means of a state income tax, the government’s problems will continue. The sales tax and Sundquist’s plan won’t cut it; we need an income tax. We must get involved by notifying our state legislators and fellow citizens of our need for an income tax. The future of our state depends upon us. Works Cited Cheek, Duren, and Bonna M. de la Cruz. "Lawmakers Approve a Budget Sundquist Vows Veto." The Tennessean 23 June 2000. TennesseeNewstand. ProQuest Direct. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 5 Mar. 2001 <http://proqust.umi.com/pdqweb?TS=983849670&Did=/ 000000055454849&Mtd=1&Fmt=3&S..d3/5/0>. Ferrar, Rebecca. "Income Tax Proposed to Solve State Budget Shortfall." The Knoxville News Sentinel 23 Feb 2001. TennesseeNewstand. ProQuest Direct. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 6 Mar. 2001 <http://proquest.umi.com/pddqweb?TS-983921014&Did=000000069116567&Mtd=1&F..n3/6/01>. "Sundquist’s Budget: Who Pays?" The Commercial Appeal 21 Feb. 2001. TennesseeNewstand. ProQuest Direct. Middle Tennessee State U Lib., Murfreesboro. 6 Mar. 2001 <http//:proquest.umi.com/pdqweb?TS=983921290&Did=000000068918475&Mtd=1&F..n3/6/01>.
ESSAY 2 COVERSHEET--Negative Effects of Televised Violence on Children
The Negative Effects of Televised Violence on Children Television is a part of our everyday life. Unfortunately, a large portion of the programs that we watch contains violence. Shows such as I Love Lucy, The Waltons, and Little House on the Prairie are few and far between. As Americans, we rarely sit down as families and watch television programs that demonstrate strong morals and shared values. Instead, the television set has become a cheap baby-sitter to our young and easily influenced children. Although it may be cheap, television is causing damage that we may not be aware of. While it may not be the only contributing factor to children’s destructive behavior, children are negatively affected by the violence that they witness on the television screen. According to Madeline Levine, author of Viewing Violence, "By the time they graduate high school, children will have spent 50 percent more time in front of a television set than in front of a teacher" (6). Just as children are taught by their teachers, they are also taught by their television. All a child has to do is be old enough to know how to turn the television on. Children will watch what appeals to them, and in many cases, violence appeals to them. Commenting in Critical Issues in TV Production, Ron Whittaker admits that television violence "holds an attraction for most viewers and this attraction translates into ratings and profits" (3). Violence attracts viewers and viewers attract money. Money, ratings, and employment are just some of the underlying causes of violence on television. Unfortunately, there is a downside to these profits. Glorified violence helps to create aggressive behavior in America’s children. Research cited by the American Psychological Association has shown "three major effects of seeing violence on television: children may become less sensitive to the pain and sufferings of others [. . .] more fearful of the world around them, and [. . .] more likely to behave in aggressive or harmful ways towards others." Children who watch a lot of violent television shows are likely to become hardened to violence after a long period. If the violence does not bother them, more than likely, they will not see anything wrong with using violence as a way to solve problems or to get what they want. Leonard Eron, Ph.D., and his associates at the University of Illinois, found that children
This just goes to show that even if a child does not exhibit immediate effects after watching a violent TV program that he or she may be building up with rage and aggression on the inside that will eventually, one day, rise to the surface. Media violence portrays death unrealistically and, for that reason is potentially harmful to children. The "bang-bang, you’re dead’ sanitized scenario that we so often see on TV or in films communicates nothing of the reality of death" (Whittaker). This type of death scene shows no suffering for the victim and no remorse from the violator. According to Levine, "Television doesn’t kill people, but it provides the ideas, the social sanction, and often even the instruction that encourages antisocial behavior" (8). This type of demonstration will only teach kids that it is all right to kill people because it does not really "hurt" them. In many films, murders are premeditated and may be spelled out in detail for children and other viewers to hear. This is not like presenting an instruction manual on how to fix a broken VCR; the media is now giving out directions on how to kill people. This is a serious problem. Children are vulnerable and easily influenced by what they see and hear. In Raising PG Kids in an X-Rated Society, Tipper Gore states,
Children will imitate what they see and hear. After all, they learn how to do everything by watching their parents and others set examples. To assume that children also imitate what they see on television is logical. For example, "An adolescent boy was killed by a car and several of his friends seriously injured while imitating a scene from the movie The Program. The scene shows young men attempting to prove their courage by lying down along the center divider of a busy road between lanes of cars" (Levine 19). Obviously, TV violence can cause children to act abnormally. There are, however, those people who believe that children do not act aggressively after watching violent television shows. Professor Felton Earls of the Harvard School of Public Health suggests that "Only some children, particularly those with attention deficit disorders or information processing disorders, may be affected by television violence. Most children do not have these disorders; therefore, most children do not act aggressively when they see violence on television" ("Television Violence"). Children with these disorders may be more prone to demonstrating acts of violence and aggression. However, it cannot be forgotten that, as many studies have shown, children act differently after witnessing violence. For example, Levine reports,
Without a doubt, children are negatively affected by too much exposure to television violence. Television may not be the leading cause of aggression in children, but it is definitely a contributing factor. Tipper Gore is right to be concerned when she warns that "Television is shaping the hearts and minds and attitudes of an entire generation of children who--like their parents--are turned on to this plug-in drug" (66). Television is a drug that is corrupting young minds. Children are very vulnerable and easily influenced. They imitate what they see and hear. Something has to be done to protect America’s children. If not, they will grow up to become violent aggressors and offenders. They will also grow up in a fearful society, afraid to walk out and play in their yards for fear of getting shot by someone acting out what he or she saw on television. This is a scary world for our children to be living in. Works Cited American Psychological Association. "Violence on Television." APA Public Communications. 25 Jan. 1999 <http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/violence.html>. Gore, Tipper. Raising PG Kids in an X-Rated Society. Nashville: Abingdon, 1987. Levine, Madeline. Viewing Violence: How Media Violence Affects Your Child’s and Adolescent’s Development. New York: Doubleday, 1996. "Television Violence. Does Violence on Television Cause Aggressive Behavior?" Gettysburg College Homepage 1997. 22 Jan. 1999 <http://www. gettysburg.edu?~S410392 /tv.html>. Whittaker, Ron. "Critical Issues in TV Production: Violence in TV and Film." Television Production: A Comprehensive On-line Cybertext in Studio and Field Production. 1998. 22 Jan. 1999 <http://www.cybercollege.com/violence.htm>. ESSAY 3 COVERSHEET--"Protecting the Children: Preventing Child Abuse
Protecting the Children: Preventing Child Abuse Child abuse has become a very common occurrence. Children are being beaten every day in America. Not a day goes by that we do not hear a news report or read in the paper about another child being beaten. In many cases, the beatings end in death. These beatings usually come from parents, other family members, or child-care workers. This is a problem that needs immediate attention. There are many ways in which to prevent, or at least cut back on, the large number of child abuse cases. Some of the solutions to child abuse include educating parents on how to become better parents, conducting more background checks on child-care workers, and teaching outsiders to look for signs of abuse. As Jerome Leavitt reports in The Battered Child,
Children are abused in many ways. Some parents have used their own children as ash-trays. Others have dunked them in scalding water or have beaten them until they develop welts and bleed. Reasons for child abuse can vary. Many parents may intend only to spank their children for a wrongdoing when, in fact, they get carried away, and the spanking turns into cruel and unusual punishment. Other parents may take out their anger and frustration on their children by beating them even if they have not done anything wrong. Whatever the reasons are for parents to beat their own flesh and blood, this abuse has to be stopped. Education is the key to preventing child abuse. According to the National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse website, "When parents are under significant stress, children, as well as society, too often pay a terrible price. Among the consequences for children are poor nutrition, low immunization rates, lack of school readiness and increasing rates of child abuse and neglect." Often new parents are very young and do not have much education on how to raise a child. Many young families are financially strained and stressed. This frustration may lead parents to take out their anger on their children. For this reason, parenting classes should be offered to all new parents. According to the Iowa Child Abuse Prevention Program, "Parent education programs teach families through both in-home and home-based instruction. Programs focus on the needs of both the parents and their children and work with families to increase their healthy interactions. They help families improve their communication and teach parents creative ways to manage their children’s behavior" ("Services"). Parents need to know how to discipline their children without causing them harm. Programs such as the Iowa Child Abuse Prevention Program provide young parents "with support, accurate information, and educational materials in order to reduce the likelihood of child abuse. They provide instruction to help parents understand their children better and to improve their parenting skills" ("Services"). In order to make an impact on child abuse cases, effective services must reach significant numbers of families. For this reason, all new parents should be provided with some type of parenting class. If at all possible, these classes should be received before parents bring their children home from the hospital. Child abuse does not only come from parents. In the recent past, we have heard about alarming numbers of daycare workers having charges brought against them for child mistreatment. According to Leavitt, "Children in our own and many other societies have always been subjected to a wide range of abuse by parents and other caretakers, including teachers and child care personnel, and often indirectly by society as a whole" (215). In order to protect children from being abused by daycare workers, parents should be very thorough when doing background checks on daycare centers. Child care workers should have the credibility and experience to handle any child’s misbehavior without harming the child. Children are a precious gift from God and should never be mistreated by anyone, no matter what the situation. While the cost of doing background checks on teachers and daycare workers may be expensive, it is well worth the money. If asked to vote on it, most Americans would probably like to see their tax dollars spent on keeping their children safe, rather than things such as supplying prisoners with cable television. Child abuse is a serious problem, and Americans should take every necessary action to stop it. Another way to help prevent child abuse is to teach people to recognize and speak out about child abuse. In many cases, the abused child is afraid to speak about the abuse for fear of being beaten again. Often abusers will threaten children to prevent themselves from exposure. For this reason, it is important that outsiders learn how to recognize abuse and not hesitate to report it. Leavitt emphasizes that The social signs are therefore important aids to diagnosis for preventing further serious damage in children who have already been damaged by their own parents. We think however, that these signs can also be recognized in earlier stages in other settings, in some instances early enough to prevent the extreme deterioration in parent-child relationships that is behind the abusive behavior, or a least in getting services to the child and family before the deteriorated relationship has resulted in serious damage to the child. (236) Anyone who has normal access to the family can identify the signs of abuse, report it, and get protection for the abused child. Some signs to look for in abused children include, "Not looking to parents for reassurance, being wary of physical contact by parents or anyone else, and asking ‘When am I going home?’ or announcing ‘I’m not going home,’ rather than crying ‘I want to go home’" (Leavitt 236). Children are often afraid to speak out, so outsiders must recognize their cry for help through the child’s actions. It is also important to reassure children that by turning to and talking to someone they trust, they will be protected from the abuse. Children need to know that they have someone they can talk to outside the family. According to Anne Cohn Donelly, "In 1991, there were 1,383 documented child abuse fatalities. The actual numbers are undoubtedly larger than that. This means that, essentially, four children a day die as a result of child abuse" (29). Without help, children will continue to be abused and beaten. While implementation of prevention programs may be expensive, they are well worth the time and money if they will save young lives. As stated in Assessment of Parenting: Psychiatric and Psychological Contributions, "The parenting children receive is a cornerstone for the development of their emotional, interpersonal, and social well-being. The quality of relationships they form with others, including their own children when they become parents, will be shaped by their care-taking experiences" (Reder and Lucey 3). Children often imitate their parents' actions. If they are abused, they are likely to abuse their own children some day. Our children are America’s future. As a society, we pay when we face a future in which poorly nurtured children become unproductive adults. We must take care of our children, not abuse them. Works Cited Donnelly, Anne Cohn, comp. Keeping Kids Safe: Exploring Public/Private Partnerships to Prevent Abuse and Strengthen Families. US. Cong. House Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families. Washington, DC: GPO, 1992. Leavitt, Jerome. The Battered Child. Morristown: General Learning P, 1974. National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse. 1999. 5 Feb. 1999 <http://www.childabuse.org/8ar97.html>. Reder, Peter, and Clare Lucey. Assessment of Parenting: Psychiatric and Psychological Contributions. London: Routledge, 1995. "Services of the Iowa Child Abuse Prevention Program." Prevent Child Abuse Iowa. 1998. 3 Feb. 1999 <http://www.pcaiowa.org/program services.html>. ESSAY 4 COVERSHEET--In the Interest of the Children: The Case for Open Adoption
In the Interest of the Children: The Case for Open Adoption Close your eyes and imagine that you are sitting all alone in a doctor’s office. Lately, you have been feeling very tired and nauseated and your back feels as if it is about to break in two. In the back of your mind, you know that there is a slight possibility that you might be pregnant. However, you are only sixteen, and you have only had sex once. You can not possibly be pregnant because in your world that stuff just does not happen to people your age. You think it is just stress. Unfortunately, the doctor tells you what you have been dreading to hear. You are pregnant. Every day in America, many women have this experience. Being pregnant can be a frightening situation if you are not prepared to be a parent. Being sixteen and pregnant can be an even more frightening situation. At such a young age, all the odds are against a sixteen year old trying to raise a baby. In many cases, the woman is unmarried, has very little money, and does not know who to turn to for help. At any age, pregnancy can be hard. Women have three choices. They can abort, adopt, or parent. If the birth parents are unable to be parents, adoption is a much better alternative than abortion. Giving a child love, attention, and affection is the greatest gift a parent can give. However, children also need to be raised by parents who can provide for them. If the birth parents are not financially or emotionally ready to become parents, the greatest gift they can give their child is a family who will love, care, and provide for them in a way that parents should. For birth parents who are unable or unwilling to take care of their child, the healthiest alternative is adoption. Open adoption allows children to be cared for by loving parents who can provide for them in a way that the birth parents could not, while at the same time, being able to have the benefit of knowledge about their birth parents and the loving plan they made for them. Open adoption allows for all the members of the triad to be happy. Therefore, open adoptions do have benefits. Unfortunately, circumstances of life sometimes make it impossible for birth parents to provide for their child. By choosing adoption as an alternative plan to parenting, birth parents can provide what their child needs through someone else. According to the Adoption Center of East Texas website, "Adoption is not giving up. Placing your child in adoption is an act of love and persistence--‘hanging in there.’ Sometimes, loving acts are the most difficult and adoption requires strength with the ability to consider the need of your child before your own." If the birth parents are not able to take care of their child, they should not be ashamed to put their child up for adoption. Parents should have the child’s best interest in mind. Besides, adoption is a much better alternative than abortion. In Voices For Open Records, James Pinkerton writes,
Because of this, it has recently become more common for birth parents to consider open adoption rather than some other form of adoption. Bill Betzen, in Planning An Adoption Placement, recommends that birth parents have "the full power to select the family they want. They should know their full identity, and meet and know them, and their home. Each of them should make a life long commitment to stay in direct contact with each other with visits at least once a year." It is imperative that the birth parents get to know the adoptive parents very well. If the birth parents are capable of understanding that they are not ready to have a family, they should also understand the importance of finding the right family for their child. The greatest benefit of open adoption is that the birth parents can choose who gets to parent their child. If they do not like them after they meet them, they can politely say no and proceed to meeting another family. This is the family that the child will spend the rest of his or her life with, and this is the most important decision that the biological parents can make before giving up their right to parent. Another benefit of open adoption is that the birth parents can know who the adoptive parents will be before the baby is born. Betzen thinks that "The ideal situation in an adoption is for both families to become friends. It has become increasingly common for the birth and adoptive mothers to make doctor’s appointments together and then be in the delivery room together." Having the adoptive parents in the delivery room allows the child to quickly develop a bond with his or her new parents. It also allows for an easier transition for all of the involved parties. Current research has found substantial evidence that supports open adoptions. For example, Dr. Ruth McRoy of the University of Texas in Austin has discovered that, "in their five year study of over 500 triad members, children of open adoptions have a more positive image of their birth mother"; Dr. Marianne Berry, from the California Longitudinal Study on Adoption, reports that "children of open adoptions [. . .] have fewer behavioral problems than children of closed adoptions"; and as Dr. Anu Sharma, of the Search Institute in Minneapolis, finds, "Information issues are a major preoccupation for adolescent adoptees form closed adoptions" (qtd. in Betzen). For many adoptees there is always the issue of wanting to know more about their biological parents. Basically, that issue boils down to closed adoption records. Many birth parents do not want their child to have access to their records because it will make it easier for their children to contact them. In general, courts have "valued the biological parents’ theoretical right to privacy over adoptees’ right to know," says Katarina Wegars in Adoption, Agency, and Kinship: The Debate Over Sealed Birth Records (31). For this reason, because the records are sealed, there is no need for biological parents to worry about being contacted. Everyone, however, should have the opportunity to know about his or her past, heritage, and medical history. In many cases, adoptees are respectful of their parents’ wishes and do not invade their privacy by contacting them and asking a lot of questions. All they want is answers. In his book In Search of Origins John Triseliotis states, "I probably wouldn’t even want to meet my mother if I had information about her character and that of my father; the circumstances of the adoption and why; if I had any brothers and sisters; what sort of people my foreparents were and what kind of background" (152). This is the main reason open adoption is the healthiest choice for the child. If the biological parents are involved in an open adoption, the child does not have to deal with the courts to find about whether or not he or she has probable cause to see the records. The child’s best interest should always be more important than anything else, and open adoption causes a lot less confusion for the child. If the biological parents are available, they can answer all of the child’s questions. They can explain why they felt it would be better for the child to live in a home where the parents were stable enough to care for the child properly. Open adoption allows the birth parents to choose the right family for their child. After all, a child is not given to a family; the family is given to the child. Works Cited Adoption Center of East Texas: A Branch of Home of St. Mark. 1997. 15 March 1999 <http://www/ibntv.org/stcyp/acet.html>. Betzen, Bill. Planning An Adoption Placement. 29 March 1996. 15 March 1999 <http://www.openadoption.org/bbetzen/parent.html>. Pinkerton, James. Voices For Open Records. 11 Aug. 1998. 3 March 1999 <http://www.ibar.com/voices/activism/oped.html>. Triseliotis, John. In Search of Origins: The Experiences of Adopted People. Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1993. Wegar, Katarina. Adoption, Identity, and Kinship: The Debate Over Sealed Birth Records. New Haven: Yale University P, 1997.
Last name, First name you preferred to be called
DRAFT 1 PROGRESS REPORT SHEETS Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 1A Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 1B Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 2 Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 3 Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 4 Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Draft 1 Progress Report: Essay 5 Your Name__________________________ Number of pages of draft_______ Number of words_______
Student___________________________________ English 1020 Essay Number_________ Instructions: For each essay, complete a coversheet after you have written a discovery draft and then submit the coversheet with all subsequent drafts of the essay, revising the coversheet as needed if your approach to the essay changes. You may write on the back of this sheet if you need more room.
WRITER'S QUESTIONS FOR PEER RESPONSE Essay # _____ Student _____________________________ Instructions: In the space provided below, write at least three questions that you would like your peer reader to respond to in reference to your work in progress (coversheet and essay draft). Consider your questions carefully:
Complete this form before coming to class, and on peer response day bring it with your coversheet and draft 2 of the essay.
PEER RESPONSE SHEETS--ESSAYS 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5 Essay 1A Peer Response Sheet: Summary and Response Essay writer’s name________________________ Peer’s Name_____________________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
Essay 1B Peer Response Sheet: Evaluation of an Argument Essay writer’s name________________________ Peer’s Name_____________________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
Essay 2 Peer Response Sheet: Speculation about Causes or Effects Essay writer’s name_______________________________ Peer’s name____________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
Essay 3 Peer Response Sheet: Proposal to Solve a Problem Essay writer’s name_______________________________ Peer’s name____________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
Essay 4 Peer Response Sheet: Position Paper Essay writer’s name_______________________________ Peer’s name____________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
Essay 5 Peer Response Sheet: Literary Critical Analysis Essay writer’s name_______________________________ Peer’s name____________________ Instructions: Respond to each item as fully as possible.
EVALUATION OF THE PEER GROUP PROCESS Essay # 1 Peer Group Instructions: Think back over the work of your reading and responding to your peer’s writing and answer these questions fully.
Essay #2 Peer Group Instructions: Answer these questions as fully as you can in the time remaining in class.
Essay #3 Peer Group Instructions: Answer these questions as fully as you can in the time remaining.
Essay #4 Peer Group Instructions: Answer these questions as fully as you can in the time remaining.
Essay #5 Peer Group Instructions: Answers these questions as fully as you can in the time remaining.
Teacher Feedback: Diagnostic Essay Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of your in-class Writing. Purpose of the Diagnostic Essay: You are expected to enter English 1020 with basic essay writing skills in the areas listed below. The diagnostic essay, a timed in-class writing, gives your English 1020 teacher an opportunity to identify your strengths and weaknesses as a writer early in the course so that your strengths can be reinforced and your weaknesses addressed. _____ Your diagnostic essay is satisfactory writing for English 1020
entry level. _____ ESSAY WRITING
_____ PARAGRAPH WRITING
_____ SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION
_____ LANGUAGE USAGE
_____ GRAMMAR/MECHANICS
TEACHER’S GENERAL RESPONSE: Teacher's Feedback to Essay 1A: Summary and Response Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 1 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT Teacher's Feedback to Essay 1B: Evaluation of an Argument Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 1 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT Teacher's Feedback to Essay 2: Speculating on Cause and/or Effects Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 2 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT Teacher's Feedback to Essay 3: Proposal to Solve a Problem Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 3 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT Teacher's Feedback to Essay 4: Position Paper Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 4 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT Teacher's Feedback to Essay 5: Literary Critical Analysis Instructions: This form must be bound in your English Folder on top of all materials for Essay 5 collected here and in the order returned to you. _____ Your essay submission is being returned to you unread because you
fail to meet the format and submission requirements noted below. FORMAT |
