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PORTFOLIO COMPOSITION: A STUDENT'S GUIDE by Linda Badley, Ayne Cantrell, and Maria Clayton Department of English [ Part One--Argumentation and Research ] [ Part Three--Sample Student Portfolios ] [
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Document ] PART ONE—PORTFOLIO: ARGUMENTATION AND RESEARCH
 Argumentative Writing
Research,
Incorporating, and Documenting Sources
Introduction to English 1020 Portfolio Composition Welcome to English 1020 Portfolio Composition: Research and Argumentative Writing. This course is designed to help prepare you for sophomore and upper level courses and for professional life. In English 1010, you learned to compose short essays for a variety of audiences and purposes. In English 1020, you will learn to read and think critically, to research and evaluate a variety of sources, to write logically and persuasively, to integrate what you have thought and learned into your writing, and to cite and document your sources correctly. The fact that you are in a Portfolio Composition section of English 1020 is especially important. In other first-year writing courses, the student receives a grade on each individual assignment with little or no opportunity to revise the writing. In English 1020 Portfolio Composition, your teacher will ask you to revise your writing, which will not be graded until near the end of the semester--after you have had ample opportunity to collect the best of your revised work in a WRITER’S PORTFOLIO for evaluation. The Portfolio System aims to help you become mature writers capable of attaining both professional and personal purposes through writing. It encourages you to go beyond merely writing for your teacher by requiring you to address and communicate to a variety of real, flesh-and-blood audiences. The English Department is using this system because it offers a number of advantages to students:
How Does This System Work? In this system, you will develop a portfolio of your writing over the semester. All students will write five major assignments in addition to homework and in-class assignments. Your teacher will provide you with a schedule of deadlines for completing this work. For the five major writing assignments, students will complete one of two options as determined by the instructor: --students write five researched essays of different genres. Essay topics vary. Option Two--students write four researched essays of different genres and one annotated bibliography. The bibliography will annotate sources within a single topic area or field, and two of the essays will select their subjects from that area or field. For a description of the essay assignments see Five Portfolio Writing Assignments. At mid-semester you will submit a practice portfolio of revised writing. For the Mid-term Portfolio, students who complete Option One of the Essay Assignments will revise either Essay 1 or 2 and write an introduction to the portfolio; students who complete Option Two will revise Essay 1 and write an introduction to the portfolio. Your teacher will evaluate the portfolio and assign an informational letter grade. Whereas the mid-term grade report will let you know your pass/fail status in the course, the mid-term grade will not be binding; that is, it will not be figured into your final course grade. If your teacher informs you that your Mid-term Portfolio did not pass, you must have a conference with your teacher immediately. In this meeting, you and your teacher will devise a plan for improving your writing with the goal of passing the Final Portfolio. At semester’s end, you will prepare your Final Portfolio, which will consist of a total of three revised essays. You will make sure that you select only work that you have carefully revised and edited using the feedback provided by your teacher and peers. Your teacher will evaluate your portfolio by applying the Standards for Judging Student Portfolios, English 1020. To earn a grade of C or better, your writing must meet all six of the following criteria for effective writing:
The Final Portfolio will count at least 70% of your course grade. What Are Your Responsibilities as a Student in Portfolio Composition? Your teacher will coach you throughout the semester on how to prepare your Portfolio for evaluation. Your teacher will also request you to evaluate your own writing, at least twice during the semester--once before the submission of the Mid-term Portfolio and again before the submission of the Final Portfolio. You will follow these guidelines to ensure success in the course:
Five Portfolio Writing Assignments SKILLS/ABILITIES: The successful completion of each of the following five essay assignments requires that the writer
ESSAY 1A: SUMMARY AND RESPONSE (750-900 words) ,
Writing Well, 6th. edition: ESSAY 1B: EVALUATION OF AN ARGUMENT (750-900 words) ESSAY 2: SPECULATION ABOUT CAUSES AND EFFECTS (750-900 words) ESSAY 3: PROPOSAL TO SOLVE A PROBLEM (750-900 words) ESSAY 4: POSITION PAPER (750-900 words) ESSAY 5: LITERARY CRITICAL ANALYSIS (750-900 words)
Basic Requirements for Portfolio Assignments General Requirements:
Format Matters:
Typed or Word Processed Papers:
Use of Secondary Sources (see "Researching, Incorporating, and Documenting Sources" in this guide for additional requirements):
10 Steps to Completing Essay Assignments--Inventing, Drafting, and Revising
Standards for Judging Student Portfolios, English 1020 E FFECTIVE WRITING
Grades on portfolios range from A, B, C, and F. Portfolios are evaluated according to the criteria defined below: The grade of C means that the essays in the portfolio constitute competent writing at the first-year college level. The essays are fairly well organized and manage to convey their various purposes to the reader. While the portfolio lacks serious errors in documentation and the use of Standard English, the portfolio does not exhibit the vigor of expression and thought that would entitle it to an above-average grade. C is the average grade in MTSU’s first-year writing program. The grade of B means that the essays in the portfolio clearly constitute above average writing at the first-year college level. The essays are logically organized, ideas are insightfully and clearly developed, and source materials are integrated well with the writer’s arguments. While the essays exhibit the positive qualities of good writing listed above, the B portfolio does not sustain the originality of thought and style that characterizes the A portfolio. The grade of A means that the essays in the portfolio constitute exceptional writing at the first-year college level. The A portfolio contains all the positive qualities of good writing that are listed above, and in addition the essays show originality of statement and observation, and ideas are clear, logical, and even thought-provoking. The grade of F means that the essays in the portfolio do not achieve the average proficiency in expression and thought expected from first-year college writers. The essays may lack clearly identified purposes and audiences, fail to organize and develop adequately, fail to incorporate and document sources clearly, and/or contain serious errors in the use of Standard English. An unsatisfactory effort in any one of the six qualities of effective writing listed above results in a portfolio grade of F.
Writing that is persuasive influences readers by strengthening their beliefs or changing their opinions, and sometimes as a result of persuasive writing, readers act upon their newfound convictions. For example, after reading an article on the mistreatment of animals, a teenager comes to believe that animals are abused in laboratory experiments; she wants to take an active part in preventing such abuse, so she applies for membership in PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals), an activist organization for animal rights. Writing that attempts to persuade is the most common type of writing, yet writing to persuade can be the most difficult to achieve. Why? Just consider this hypothetical situation: Suppose you are convinced that alcoholic beverages should be allowed on our campus--beer, for example, in the grill. To act upon this belief, you decide to write a letter to the college president to ask that he join with you and a select group of students and faculty to work toward the common goal of allowing beer to be sold in the campus grill and to allow students to keep alcoholic beverages in their rooms, if they so desire. What factors should influence what you say and how you say it in the letter? Obviously, your having a strong belief in the cause will not be enough to win the president’s consent. You will need to select the strongest argument and the best evidence you can muster because the issue of alcoholic beverages on campuses of public institutions in Tennessee is an extremely controversial issue. After all, we live in the Bible Belt where church-affiliated groups consistently oppose the sale of liquor. Even if the president personally believes that students should have the privilege of drinking beer on campus, he may reject your appeal because of "hidden" factors, such as hostile public opinion and community pressure. In other words, you must know the possible objections in advance and address these in the letter. This is only one of many problems that you must overcome in writing such a letter. What are some others? Writing to persuade is a complex task, demanding an understanding of human behavior and motivation, knowledge of argumentation and evidence, and skill in audience analysis and adaptation. This semester’s work will be devoted to learning the process of persuasion. All the assignments you will write will be efforts to persuade your readers that your ideas are sound and that your views are worthy of their acceptance. Most likely, the kind of writing you will do in Portfolio Composition 1020 will differ from the kind of writing you have done before. In high school and in many first semester college composition courses, students write expository essays for the most part, i.e. writing that seeks to inform the reader. The primary purpose of expository writing is to get the reader to understand the material you present. But when you write to persuade, you will want your readers both to understand and to accept your arguments. The Persuasive Purposes and Audience Analysis/Adaptation How do you want your readers to respond to the subject? What do you want them to do as a result of reading your essay? These questions are directed at describing purpose in writing. "I want my readers to believe that we need more restrictive gun control laws"; "I want my readers to donate money to the Red Cross"; "I want my readers to accept the idea that plagiarism is like stealing"--these are purpose statements. In each of these instances, the writer seeks to influence the readers in a particular way. All are statements of persuasive purposes.
You will note that these statements of the general aims of persuasion are reader-centered. This means that the writer’s purpose is determined by the reader’s attitude toward the subject. Consequently, the first step in writing persuasively is audience analysis (Who are the readers? Where do they stand on the issue? Why do they believe as they do?) The next step in persuasive writing is audience adaptation. Here the writer uses the knowledge about the readers’ attitudes and beliefs to shape the content of the essay by adopting the most appropriate language and material to achieve the purpose inherent in the message. Three Proofs: Ethical, Emotional, and Logical The art of persuasion has a long and distinguished history. Although modern studies in psychology have taught us much about human behavior and contributed to our understanding of persuasion theory, still we owe much of our knowledge about persuasion to the ancient Greek philosopher/teacher Aristotle (384-322 BC). In his Rhetoric Aristotle defines rhetoric (the art of spoken or written discourse) as finding all "the available means of persuasion" (Ch. II). He divides the means of persuasion into three general categories of proof: ethos, pathos, and logos. Translated these mean ethical proof (persuasion by the writer’s character), emotional proof (persuasion by satisfying the audience’s emotional needs), and logical proof (persuasion by appealing to the audience’s ability to reason). Aristotle’s theory of the three types of persuasive proof rests on the fact that we are both thinking and feeling beings. We are rational and emotional. We reach conclusions about our world because we can solve problems logically, and we react to our world in particular ways because we have basic needs that must be met. Subsequently, we persuade others by appeals to their reason and emotions and by the strength of our personality and character. Ethical Proof--When writers present themselves as persons of good sense, integrity, and good will, they are attempting to use ethical proof to win the readers’ approval--to make them more receptive to persuasion. Simply put, we are likely to accept the opinions of others if we believe they are to be trusted, if we believe they are fair-minded, and if we believe they know what they are talking about. To illustrate, a foreign student enrolled in English 1020 complained to the departmental chairman about his composition teacher. "I want a real teacher," he said. "I want a man." This student was unhappy about having a female teacher (one, by the way, who held a Ph.D. and other outstanding teaching credentials) because in his culture women do not hold positions of authority; only men are teachers, religious leaders, and politicians. Therefore, the female composition instructor did not possess ethical proof for this foreign student. He demanded a "real" teacher--a man whom he could trust to teach the subject well. In writing, you can provide potential ethical proof both directly and indirectly. The direct means is by acknowledging your expertise on the subject. If you have firsthand experience, let the reader know. Recently, a first-year composition student wrote an essay that intended to persuade his readers that equal funding for female and male college athletes is desirable because women, as well as men, benefit from participating in college sports. He presented a very good argument, but his peer readers were most impressed by the student’s firsthand knowledge of the subject. The writer had coached girls’ softball and women’s track, so he knew from personal experience the value of sports activities for women. You, too, may have experiences and firsthand knowledge that will improve your credibility with the readers. If so, make the readers aware of your special expertise. Work experience, courses of study, activities, hobbies, skills of family and friends--all may qualify you to write on the topic and provide potential ethical proof directly. The indirect means of ethical proof includes factors involving your competency as a writer and thinker. Generally, readers are less likely to accept the ideas of those who do not write well. Errors in grammar and mechanics present the writer in a negative way, just as sloppy attire presents the applicant in a bad way during the job interview. The fact is that people do judge us by the way we write, and if we write incorrectly, we hold little or no ethical proof for them. Also if we reveal ourselves to be inconsistent and illogical, we do not impress our readers as writers they can trust. One wrong bit of information or one faulty argument can spoil the whole argument, even if the rest of the case you present is logical, correct, and consistent. Furthermore, readers expect you to be fair and thorough. If you are not, you will hold no credibility for them, and they will not accept your ideas. Emotional Proof--When writers attempt to persuade by promising to fulfill the readers’ needs, they are providing emotional proof. You are very familiar with this type of proof because you are bombarded with such appeals daily through advertisements and commercials. A few years ago, soft drink companies conducted television advertising campaigns that appealed to different human needs. "Join the Pepsi Generation" implied that if consumers drank Pepsi, they would belong to the popular crowd. The need to belong--to be accepted by others--is a basic need that humans all have. Dr. Pepper ads, on the other had, promised potential buyers that they would be unique if they drank Dr. Pepper. "Be a pepper" meant be one-of-a-kind; stand out in a crowd; don’t be like everyone else; dare to be different. This, too, is an appeal to a basic need we all have--the need to be different, our own person. Today, when the Gap Company advertises khaki trousers on television to the beat of Brian Setzer’s "Jump, Jive An’ Wail" and shows young, attractive men and women swing dancing, not only are advertisers attempting to sell a product by capitalizing on a new music fad, but also they hope to touch in you a need to belong to the "in" crowd; simply put, you are not "with it" unless you wear the Gap’s khaki pants. Insurance companies sell security to families; toothpaste manufacturers sell sexual attractiveness to young adults; and shoe clerks sell pretty feet to women! Can you think of others? Motivational researchers (people who study human behavior) often advise companies about how to best present their products to sway the public to buy them. They also advise politicians as to how to best sell themselves to win votes. Politicians in turn make use of emotional appeals in their speeches and commercials. The politician who tells us that college students are the future of our nation, that the poor--as well as the wealthy--must have college educations, and that our country is only as strong as our educated leaders appeals to our sense of fair play and to our national pride, as well as to our pride in being educated individuals. By the mid-20th century, persuasion of this type was a big business in the United States. In The Hidden Persuaders (1957), a study of the techniques and methods of persuasion, author Vance Packard notes, "The use of mass psychoanalysis to guide campaigns of persuasion has become the basis of a multimillion-dollar industry. Professional persuaders have seized upon it in their groping for more effective ways to sell us their wares--whether products, ideas, attitudes, candidates, goals, or states of mind" (1). These persuaders, according to Packard, are looking for
That the emotions play a significant role in persuasion has been recognized since Aristotle’s day. Three hundred years before the birth of Christ, Aristotle defined emotions as "those states which are attended by pain and pleasure, and which, as they change, make a difference in our judgments of the same thing" (92). Two hundred years later, with reference to speakers, the great Roman orator Cicero in De Oratore acknowledged the positive value of emotional proof: "Men make a decision oftener through feeling than through fact or law. [ . . .] Orators must have a scent for an audience, for what people are feeling, thinking, waiting for, wishing" (qtd. in Baldwin 52). Both Aristotle and Cicero clearly understood that a primary means of persuasion is to relate one’s proposition to the needs and values of the audience. Modern studies of human behavior have greatly increased our knowledge of what motivates people to do as they do. In Motivation and Personality (1970), psychologist A. H. Maslow speaks of a hierarchy of needs--needs that must be met for human beings to be happy and well adjusted. Common to all people are basic animal needs, those that must be provided for mere survival, such as the need for food and shelter, but we also possess needs that are particularly human, such as desires for approval and achievement. Most likely, you are enrolled in college, for instance, to fulfill the human need for self-esteem. Maslow recognizes that the animal needs must be met first before the human and "higher" needs; therefore, he describes such needs as hierarchical. In this respect; it is helpful to think of a ladder with the animal needs for basic survival represented by the lowest rungs of the ladder and the human needs for self-actualization at the highest rungs (figure 1). The lowest level of unsatisfied needs motivates behavior; once this level of needs is satisfied, a person tries to satisfy the needs at the next level. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS Self-Actualization
Needs The list of needs in figure 1 is by no means exhaustive, yet these will give you an idea of the kind of needs that are often referred to as "vital appeals" or "drives." A writer who seeks to influence readers by implying directly or indirectly that these needs will be satisfied if they accept the writer’s proposition is attempting to persuade by using emotional proof. Of course, what moves one group of readers emotionally may not move another. Although we can generalize about human motivation, individuals do differ. That is the reason that audience analysis is the key factor in emotional proof. What if you needed to write home for an advance on your weekly college allowance or you needed to ask a relative for money to pay an unexpected bill? Would you make the same appeal to both your father and mother, the same appeal to different relatives? Or do you understand that people are different and that motive appeals which work for one may not work for another? A common mistake that novice writers often make is to make appeals on religious grounds. These writers assume that all readers believe as they do and, thereby, are motivated when issues--such as censorship, abortion, or capital punishment--are connected to religious beliefs. When the readers do not have strong religious beliefs or hold none at all, obviously such appeals do not provide emotional proof. Writers also use connotative language favorable to their positions when they seek to persuade using emotional proof. Connotative language includes the feelings and attitudes--positive or negative--associated with words. When we speak of law enforcers as "police officers," we are using words with positive connotations; "cops" has a less favorable connotation, "pigs" even less favorable. Words have denotative meanings as well as connotative meanings. The denotative meaning is the literal and explicit meaning. Denotatively, an "elderly spinster" and an "old maid" refer to an older woman who is unmarried, yet there is a definite difference in the connotation of these phrases--"old maid" is much more negative than "elderly spinster." An essay entitled "Kill ‘Em! Crush ‘Em! Eat ‘Em Raw!" further illustrates the use of connotative language. Author John McMurtry is a former professional football player who deplores the violence of the sport, which he believes is just one more example of our society’s love for violence. At one point he says that "body shattering is the very point of football, as killing and maiming are of war." Then in the following passage, he turns his attention to the spectators:
McMurtry asks Americans to think of football in war terms: "violent aggression," "people-smashing," "savage attackers," and "martial tendencies." The implication of his connotative language is that both player and spectator are barbaric. If you accept the associations that the language implies, you will agree with McMurtry’s major contention: Professional football is representative of what is wrong with the American way of life. Logical Proof--The third means of persuasion is the appeal to reason, which calls on the reader’s ability to draw conclusions based on facts and judgments. In other words, writers who use logical proof will provide evidence and arguments; they will rationally demonstrate that their positions are justified. Aristotle held that logical proof is the most important means of persuasion. He understood that although the use of ethical and emotional proof is often appropriate, persuasive attempts that lack the "truth" of logical proof are suspect. Be wary of persuaders who offer no argumentative proof in support of their positions; perhaps, they attempt to manipulate readers’ emotions because no logical basis for their appeals exists. The writing that you will do in Portfolio Composition 1020 recognizes the importance of substantiating your position through logic. You may use ethical and emotional appeals, but you will use logical appeals primarily; after all, English 1020 is a course in argumentative writing.
Two coeds were sitting in Old Main waiting for their first class of the new semester to begin when the following discussion occurred:
Most of us engage in conversations like this one without realizing that we are participating informally in argumentation. Usually we think that argumentation is the work of lawyers or debaters in formal situations, such as courts of law or the debate forum, and it is, but argumentation is also a frequent means of persuasion in our everyday lives. An analysis of Janice and Anne’s conversation reveals four basic characteristics of argument which apply to both formal and informal argumentative contexts. First, there is a point of controversy. Is Economics 316 an easy or difficult course to pass? In answer to this question, a potential for disagreement exists, and controversy likely follows. Without a subject of controversial nature, no argument would ensue. Second, an assertion is made. Anne says that Economics 316 is a "breeze," meaning that the women will pass easily. This is the idea that she wants Janice to accept, but Janice is doubtful. Doubt, or disbelief, gives rise to a potentially argumentative situation. Third, information is offered to support the assertion. When Janice asks Anne how she knows that Economics 316 is easy, Anne makes several points: John passed the course; Professor Alexander helps students pass the course; Professor Alexander does not fail anyone who attends regularly. Fourth, for the argument to constitute a unit of proof, the information offered as support must be relevant to the assertion in such a way that one may infer the validity of the assertion. For example, when Anne says that Economics 316 must be easy to pass because John passed it, she infers that the women will pass because they are as smart or smarter than he. Finally, Janice assumes when she learns that Professor Alexander passes all students that attend class regularly that she will be one of those students; otherwise, she would not have accepted Anne’s assertion so readily. In short, an argument is advanced when an assertion is made about a controversial subject and information is provided to support the assertion; it is substantiated when that information is accepted and shown to be relevant in such a way that the truth of the assertion may be inferred. This is the chain of reasoning in an argument that constitutes a unit of proof. In The Uses of Argument (1964), English philosopher Stephen Toulmin introduces a model for a unit of proof that the writer can use to construct and analyze arguments. A uniqueness of the Toulmin diagram for argument especially pertinent to the invention of written argument is its description of argument as dynamic movement. Toulmin defines argument as movement from accepted data (D) through warrant (W) to claim (C). These are the three indispensable components of an argument as diagrammed on the Toulmin model in figure 2:
Together these essential components may constitute a unit of proof and are defined according to their functions within the argument: (1) Claim is the conclusion to the argument; that is, it is the assertion made by the writer--the idea the writer wishes the reader to accept. Claims may either affirm or deny: There is (is not) life on Mars; People who falsify their federal income tax reports are (are not) criminals; Forced busing is (is not) the best solution to public school integration. Claim, then is the explicit appeal produced by the argument. As propositions asserted by the arguer for audience acceptance, claims fall generally into three basic types: propositions of fact, value, or policy. A claim of fact asserts or denies that something has happened, is happening, or will happen and usually can be confirmed or denied by objective data: It is (is not) raining. A claim of value makes a judgment about a person, place, thing, or idea: Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest is (is not) a good novel. A claim of policy advocates or rejects a course of action: Marijuana should (should not) be legalized. The claim must be a contention of controversy; otherwise, there would be no need for an argument. For the writer, the claim answers the question "What do I want my reader to believe?" It is either the final assertion in the argument or an intermediate statement that once accepted serves to support another claim. For example, the claim that "many high school football injuries are the result of worn or outdated uniforms" once accepted by the reader may become support for the major claim of the argument that "There should be annual inspections and state approval of high school football equipment." In a complex argument (actually a series of arguments), claims once accepted often function as data for another claim. (2) Data is the foundation of the argument, and for the writer, data answers the question "What have I got to go on?" It consists of evidence, materials of fact or opinion, that the writer offers in seeking acceptance of the claim. Data is crucial to argument since no unit of proof is possible without information that functions as evidence. When the weatherman asserts that it will rain tomorrow, he explains and offers as evidence the weather conditions that lead him to make his prediction. If the television viewers understand and accept that information as evidence, they will carry their umbrellas to work or to school the next day. Thus, evidence provides the ground for belief and often for action based on belief. (3) Warrant is that part of an argument that authorizes the mental "leap" in advancing from data to claim. For the writer, it answers the question "How did I get there?" and functions to carry the accepted data to the doubted claim, thereby certifying the claim as true or acceptable. Since reasoning is the drawing of inferences or conclusions from known or assumed facts, the warrant is an essential link in the chain of reasoning and the movement of argument. To illustrate, to link the data that "The cost of higher education is increasing, but state legislatures are allocating less money to public colleges each year" to the claim that "Soon most students will not be able to afford a college education," the arguer will need a warrant that "Less funding by state governments will mean higher and higher yearly increases in college tuitions." Whether the warrant is stated explicitly or merely implied, it is an essential link in the movement of argument. To illustrate these three components of an argument, we may refer to the original example of the coeds’ discussion about Economics 316 and diagram Anne’s argument on the Toulmin model (figure 3). Notice how the words--on account of, since, and therefore--cue the reader as to the relationship of components in the argument:
We saw in the example that Janice was easily persuaded by Anne’s logic. The skeptical observer, however, is less likely to accept Anne’s claim so readily. No doubt these and other questions come to mind: Can Anne’s claim be accepted absolutely without any qualifications or reservations? How does she know that the women are as smart or smarter than John? What if Professor Alexander changes his grading policy regarding regular attendance? Such questions suggest that although acceptance of data, warrant, and claim constitutes a unit of proof, these components alone often are insufficient to satisfy every audience. In these cases the writer must anticipate the reader’s questions or objections and adapt the argument accordingly. Again the Toulmin model is helpful. The complete model adds three other components: backing (B), rebuttal (R), and qualifier (Q). These allow the writer to qualify, restrict, and/or further support the main line of proof when acceptance of the main line of proof is doubtful. The relationship of these components to other components in the unit of proof is indicated by the cue words probably, unless, and because. The revised model is diagrammed in figure 4:
These three additional components are also defined according to function: (4) Backing consists of credentials that serve to certify the
assumption expressed in the warrant. This may be a single item or an entire
argument with its own data, warrant, and claim. One or more of these additional components often are necessary because in most argumentative contexts incontrovertible claims are rare. Experience teaches us that very little in life is certain, that exceptions violate most rules. To reason well and to argue persuasively, the writer must be aware of exceptional circumstances or objections that weaken the credibility of the argument and be willing to adapt the argument to the special demands made by the reader. Toulmin’s six component model may be illustrated with a revision of the argument concerning Economics 316 (figure 5):
Although the degree of force of Anne’s argument is lessened by these revisions (i.e., that the women will pass the course easily is no longer asserted absolutely, for the argument recognizes the conditions under which the claim may not hold true), the claim now qualified by "probably" is more realistic and, thereby, more likely to be accepted by critical readers. Also the revised argument is more comprehensive than the original because now it accounts for the need for further support that many audiences expect. Using the Model as a Reading Strategy The Toulmin model is a tool that you can use to analyze the arguments of others, whether it be for the purpose of making personal decisions or for understanding argumentative constructs and responding to them. Therefore, you will want to add the Toulmin model to your store of critical reading strategies. Diagramming the arguments in the essays that we read in English 1020 will help you "see" a writer’s argument and determine how the argument’s components function as a unit of proof. In other words, the diagrams will serve as a quick visual aid of the writer’s skeletal argument: What is included? What is missing? Using the Model as a Step in Prewriting Also you will find the Toulmin model valuable as you invent and criticize your own arguments in the early stages of composition. A word of caution is necessary, however. Remember that the model is not a substitute for creativity. The model does not give you ready-made arguments; it will not do your thinking for you. Neither is it a means of evaluating the quality of statements plugged in to the diagram; you must go beyond the model to test the reliability of evidence, the validity of the argument, and the effectiveness of language. In the prewriting stages of composition, the model serves as a skeletal preview of the essential components of the argument(s) that you will express in final essay form. It tells you WHAT information is needed and HOW that information functions in the total argument. Testing and revising your ideas about a controversial topic on the model before you write the essay will insure that you have taken in to account all the essentials in a unit of proof. Moreover, the model suggests the need for audience analysis and subsequent adaptation, a must if you are to argue persuasively.
All the writing that you will do in English 1020 will be persuasive in intent; that is, you will attempt to influence your readers’ beliefs and sometimes you may want to call your readers to action. To be a successful persuader, you will need to understand your audience and adapt both content and language of your message to them. Also to succeed, you will need to come off as a credible person (ethical proof), appropriately move the readers emotionally (emotional proof), and, most essential to the aims of our study of argumentative writing, appeal to the readers’ ability to reason by providing sound arguments to support your position (logical proof).
When information is provided and accepted to support an assertion and shown to be relevant in such a way that the truth of the assertion is inferred, a unit of proof has been advanced; an argument has been constructed, and the arguer attempts to persuade through logic. An argument moves from accepted data through warrant to claim. Claim is the explicit appeal produced by the argument and answers the question "What do you want the reader to believe?" Generally speaking, claims may be propositions of fact (that which asserts or denies the existence of something in the past, present, or future), value (that which affirms or denies a judgment about a person, place, thing, or idea), or policy (that which advocates or rejects a plan of action). Arguments have no substantive point of departure without data that function as evidence. While data answer the questions "What do you have to go on?", warrant answers the question "How do you get there?" and serves to carry the accepted data to the doubted claim in a unit of proof. Most often these three indispensable components of an argument are insufficient to be persuasive because incontrovertible claims are rare. In such cases the writer must amend the main proof line by adding statements that qualify, restrict, or give further support. Backing may be needed to certify the assumption expressed in the warrant, or if the claim will not stand undisputed, a rebuttal may be needed to explain the circumstances under which the claim will be invalidated. In the event the writer recognizes that the claim will not hold good or will hold good only in a restricted way, the claim must carry a qualifier such as "probably" or "most likely." Data, warrant, claim together with backing, rebuttal, and qualifier are the six components of the model for an argument designed by Stephen E. Toulmin. The Toulmin model is a valuable tool as you learn to analyze and construct arguments. You should test ideas for argumentative essays by diagramming arguments on the model as a step in prewriting.
1. The two most common types of arguments are induction and deduction. A thorough study of argumentation is incomplete without some attention to these two basic types. Complete the following: (a) Read Harbrace section 35d for an overview of inductive and deductive reasoning; (b) write exercise 2, page 507; and (c) identify the conclusions of these enthymemes as claims of fact, value, or policy. 2. The inductive argument moves from specific cases (data) to a generalization (claim). Complete the following: (a) Diagram the inductive arguments below on the Toulmin model; (b) supply all missing warrants and note when qualifiers and rebuttals should be considered; and (c) identify the claims of these arguments as propositions of fact, value, or policy.
3. Whereas inductive reasoning moves from the specific (data) to the general (claim), deductive reasoning moves from a generalization (warrant) to a specific case (claim). Complete the following: (a) Using the Toulmin model, diagram the enthymemes in Harbrace exercise 2 (507) for which you supplied missing premises (Hint: restructure the arguments as syllogisms, see Harbrace 506. In the syllogism the minor premise will be data, major premise will be the warrant, and the conclusion will be the claim of the deductive argument.); and (b) next consider the need for any missing components, such as backing, qualifier, and rebuttal, which would improve the acceptability of the argument. 4. Essayists build chains of arguments in their writing; therefore, when you analyze argumentative writing using the Toulmin model, expect to diagram several arguments within one essay--all intended to support the essayist’s major assertion (the thesis claim). Once accepted, the claims of supporting arguments become data for the writer’s thesis claim. An example of argumentative writing that uses chains of arguments is Amitai Etzioni’s essay entitled "Working at McDonald’s" (Reading Critically, Writing Well 253). Etzioni states his thesis claim in the opening paragraph: "McDonald’s is bad for your kids. I do not mean the flat patties and the white-flour buns; I refer to the jobs teenagers undertake, mass-producing these choice items" (253). Etzioni wants the reader to agree with him that after-school jobs at fast-food restaurants, such as McDonald’s, are bad for teens; this is his thesis claim. To support this assertion, Etzioni offers many reasons why working at fast-food restaurants is detrimental to teenagers; these reasons are claims, each demanding its own unit of proof. Complete the following: (a ) Read Etzioni’s essay carefully, looking for the reasons he advances in support of his thesis claim; (b) then, diagram these reasons as claims of separate arguments in support of Etzioni’s thesis claim (Of course, you should not attempt to plug in all of Etzioni’s statements on Toulmin models; just diagram the skeletal arguments, the essential reasons he offers in support of his thesis claim); (c) read the essay again, this time writing notes describing Etzioni’s use of emotional proof and ethical proof; (d) finally, write a paragraph (at least 100 words) in which you assess Etzioni’s effectiveness in achieving his purpose (Were you convinced that working at fast-food restaurants is bad for teens? Why or why not? Were his claims adequately supported? Was his argument augmented by fair and effective emotional proof, including connotative language, and by adequate direct and/or indirect ethical proof?) 5. Complete the following: (a) Write a paragraph (at least 100 words) in which you advance a single unit of proof that makes one claim; (b) diagram the argument on the Toulmin model as a step in prewriting; (c) identify your argument as inductive or deductive; and (d) identify your claim as one of fact, value, or policy. Suggested topics are fraternity hazing or binge drinking, television commercials, exploration of outer space, student government, censorship, organized sports for children, university general studies requirements, animal rights. Works Cited Aristotle. The Rhetoric of Aristotle. Ed. Lane Cooper. New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1939. Baldwin, C. Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic. New York: Macmillan, 1924. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1970. McMurty, John. "Kill 'Em! Crush ‘Em! Eat ‘Em Raw!" Macleans Oct. 1971. Rpt. in The Norton Reader: An Anthology of Expository Prose. 9th ed. Eds. Linda H. Peterson, John C. Brereton, and Joan E. Hartman. New York: Norton, 1996. 348-53. Packard, Vance. Hidden Persuaders. New York: Pocket Books, 1957. Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. London: Cambridge UP, 1964.
RESEARCHING, INCORPORATING, AND DOCUMENTING SOURCES Very often, using your memory or personal observations is not sufficient to write convincingly about topics that interest you, topics you want to share with your audience. On these occasions, you will need to turn to outside sources to fill in the gaps of your knowledge and/or to add support and credibility to the points you present. Using secondary sources in your writing calls for you to develop or refine three new skills in addition to the ones you practiced in English 1010: researching, incorporating, and documenting secondary sources properly. For each of your Portfolio English 1020 essay assignments, your teacher will specify the number and types of sources you should consider including among books, periodicals, reference works, electronic sources, and the like (see Harbrace 546-67). Because information is available in many formats, you will want to let that variety be reflected in your Works Cited listing; in other words, avoid selecting all Internet sources, or all periodicals, or all books. Let your research demonstrate your familiarity with all types. Approach your research as a series of logically linked steps: Search preliminary databases You should begin by doing a preliminary database search on your topic to help you direct and even limit the focus of your interest. By accessing the MTSU Library's web site, <http://www.mtsu.edu/~library>, you can visit the "Research Gateway" which includes links to InfoTrac, Lexis-Nexis, as well as other sources related to your topic. From this search, you can begin compiling a working bibliography, or tentative listing of the sources you will consult in your research (see Harbrace 589-90). Most topics will yield a wealth of materials, so you will want to evaluate their usefulness by scanning them, reading abstracts, introductory material, reviews, and the like. In this way, you can determine an item’s applicability to your specific purpose (see Harbrace Section 38 "Evaluating Sources Online and in Print"). Making photocopies of material whenever possible allows you time to scan them more carefully, and later, if selected for inclusion, the copies make it possible for you to annotate and highlight passages to aid you in note taking (see Harbrace 585-89). Your teacher will require that you submit photocopies and/or notecards for all material incorporated in your paper. In addition to or instead of photocopies, your teacher may require that you use note cards on which you will (1) record pertinent publication in the correct Works Cited form for each source and (2) write the author’s/authors’ name(s), title, page number(s), a key word heading, and the pertinent material, clearly indicating whether it is a direct quotation or paraphrase. The key word heading will help you organize your cards and facilitate outlining, hence, organizing the points in your draft. Your teacher may require that you copy the material exactly from the text on one side of the card and offer a paraphrase on the reverse side. This method not only gives you practice in paraphrasing, but it offers you two versions of the same information as you make decisions about wording during your drafting process. Searching the Internet Using the Internet and other electronic resources is quickly becoming widespread among college students; while these sources are often easy to use and can be useful, they should be handled with caution because the Internet is a most democratic medium where incorrect, and sometimes harmful, information can look as professional and authoritative as credible sources. According to Andrew Harnack and Eugene Kleppinger in Online! A Reference Guide to Using Internet Sources (St. Martin’s, 2000), "there are few, if any, standards regarding what may be published on the Web" (93). As a rule, you will want to use electronic resources to complement, not replace, the information you can find in traditional print sources. Just as with more traditional sources, you will want to evaluate potential material for pertinence and reliability. Harnack and Kleppinger offer helpful guidelines in their to-the-point approach, which includes becoming familiar with the site’s rating, the author’s qualifications, the currency of the material—skills developed from familiarity and proficiency with the medium (104-13). (See also Harbrace 550-53 and Reading Critically, Writing Well 570-71.) One point is worth noting: when you are using electronic materials, you must make note of the date you access each item. This is a vital piece of information since material on the Internet changes almost on a daily basis. This information will be provided in the Works Cited entry. The basic format includes,
A common entry that many English 1020 students use to cite online material without a URL found from a library database. Note in the example below (from Gift’s Works Cited, p. 75) that the names of the database and the library are given, as well as the URL of the database:
For other information regarding Internet sources and the Modern Language Association (MLA), you can access their site at <http://www.mla.org/main_stl.htm#sources>. Another helpful resource is <http://www.abacon.com/compsite>, particularly the "Resources" segment. Incorporating and Documenting Secondary Sources Once you have gathered the secondary sources necessary to write your essay, you should have two goals concerning your sources: to make the information from your sources an integral part of your essay and to provide enough information about the source for your reader. Incorporating Sources The material from your sources can be incorporated in three ways: summary, paraphrase, and quotations. A summary is a statement in your own words that gives an overview in a few words of what the piece of writing is about. A three-page article can usually be summarized in three to four sentences or less and is written from the perspective of the summarizer (e.g., In "Television Insults Men, Too," Bernard Goldberg argues that television shows and commercials often present negative images of males). Like the summary, a paraphrase states the author’s ideas in your own words, but the paraphrase differs from the summary in that the paraphrases uses about the same number of words as the author. You must be careful not be lulled into thinking that merely changing a few words in a passage constitutes a valid paraphrase; if the wording in your paraphrase follows the source's wording too closely, you are guilty of plagiarism even when you cite the source (see Harbrace 597-600). A quotation uses the exact words of the author and is enclosed in quotations (see Harbrace 592-93). Summaries do not require parenthetical citations; paraphrases and quotations do (see Harbrace 593-97). One of the most challenging skills for students to master in using secondary sources is knowing when to use a quotation or paraphrase. As a rule, you should put the author’s ideas in your own words and use quotations sparingly. Your writing has a characteristic style which your audience becomes familiar with; too many quotations or "alien voices" act as static and create discontinuity. When using quoted material, you should place it within your paragraphs, not at the very beginning or as a replacement for a thesis or topic sentence; neither should quotations be used as the subject of your sentence. Additionally, you should follow a quotation with an explanation of its relevance to your paragraph, not with an echo or restatement of its points. Use a direct quotation
In order to prepare the reader for the tone or spirit of the quotation,
introduce it with an appropriate verb, what is called an attribution.
Additionally, an attribution or signal phrase provides an effective lead-in into
the author’s material, and it contributes his/her authority and credibility in
the subject area to your paper. Ordinarily, these verbs should be used in the
literary present tense. Here is a short list of examples (see Harbrace
591 for a more complete listing):
Documenting Sources You must document everything you borrow. Proper documentation is important because plagiarism—using another person’s words or ideas without acknowledging that they are not your own—is a very serious error that carries severe penalties. Accidental or unintentional plagiarism is still plagiarism. Your parenthetical documentation should provide your readers with references that clearly point to your Works Cited and the specific location of the material you are citing in its text, for instance page numbers (see Harbrace, 604+). To document your sources correctly,
Quick Reference Guide to Using Secondary Sources When you write using secondary sources, you will need know:
Most college writers know that copying another’s work word for word without giving him/her credit for it is considered plagiarism. But they often assume that this practice is frowned on only when long passages are involved—whole pages or paragraphs. Consequently, they feel free to copy phrases and sentences without using quotation marks and parenthetical documentation. Actually, any uncredited use of another’s information, ideas, or wording is plagiarism. Under the mistaken notion that they are paraphrasing, students often reproduce sources almost exactly, changing only a word here and there. Honest paraphrases, however, are ones in which students state the ideas of their sources in their own language, using original sentence patterns and words. The grade for a plagiarized paper is F. With this standard in mind, complete the following: (a) study the source passage and the examples below, noting which ones give proper credit and which are plagiarized; (b) assess the writer’s skill or lack of skill in using and crediting sources, assigning grades to each of the examples in the space provided; (c) then comment on the passage, explaining the grade you assigned. SOURCE: The following is from page 106 of Kenneth Shropshire’s Agents of Opportunity: Sports Agents and Corruption in Collegiate Sports (Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1990): Athletes must be able to receive more income as students. The logical entities to provide these increased funds are, first, the member institutions and, if that is not financially feasible, then the NCAA. At a minimum the additional amount the student athlete receives should be equal to the amount that brings the spending money available to the student athlete up to the university’s average student. This amount may be enough to prevent substantial cheating. EXAMPLES
Instructions: Using the sample Works Cited entries (Harbrace 613-32) and the information "Searching the Internet" of this Guide, put the following entries as they would appear on a Works Cited page.
The Essay Assignments--Option One
The
Essay Coversheet
The English Folder
THE ESSAY ASSIGNMENTS--OPTION ONE Essay 1A: Summary and Response
DESCRIPTION: Essay 1 requires that you write an essay that summarizes and
responds to another piece of writing. In your essay you will comment on the
writing by focusing on its content and indicating how your own experience and
knowledge lead you to disagree with the author. For a sample student essay that
summarizes and responds, see Portfolio Composition 56.
ADVICE
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